Core Infantry Handbook - UNITAF Force Manual (FM)




Core Infantry Handbook
The FM outlines our core skills, policies and guides to ensure every member stands ready for the mission ahead.



FM/G71 - Rules of engagement

Guide
FM/BG-348 - Understanding rules of engagement (ROE)
Guide

Rules of engagement (ROE) are directives that dictate how and when military forces can engage in combat. ROE outline conditions for using force, including target identification, self-defence, and proportionality. They are designed to ensure lawful and ethical conduct in military operations, and vary depending on the mission and environment. ROE always take precedence in operational decisions.

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-349 - Identify legitimate targets
T-I+ Skill

Identify targets as legitimate targets before engagement. This is crucial to prevent harm to civilians and ensure adherence to the principles of distinction and proportionality in combat.

Combatants: Individuals who are actively engaged in hostilities or are members of armed forces.

  • Enemy soldiers in uniform not surrendering or wounded
  • Armed militants
  • Persons directly participating in hostilities
  • A person posing an immediate threat (e.g., aiming a weapon) can be considered a combatant
  • Parachuting active airborne infantry

Non-Combatants: Individuals who are not actively participating in hostilities. These are not legitimate targets.

  • Civilians not taking direct part in hostilities
  • Unarmed medical and religious personnel
  • Wounded/surrendering soldiers who are not participating combat in any way, and prisoners of war
  • Parachuting crew from a downed aircraft
T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-350 - Minimize collateral damage against civilian infrastructure
T-I+ Skill

Do not cause damage to civilian infrastructure, unless necessary to archieve a military purpose. In general, preserving life should be prioritised over the avoidance of damage, but the destruction must be proportional to the purpose.

Examples:

  • Acceptable situations:
    • Using explosives on a civilian house used as a military HQ
    • Dropping a bomb on an actively engaging enemy tank next to a house
  • Unacceptable situations:
    • Cluster-bombing an enemy-held town
    • Destroying a house to take out a single shooter

FM/G70 - Weapon control states

Guide
FM/BG-335 - Understanding weapon control states
Guide

A weapon control status is a temporary condition set by the Commander of an operation, one state is always in effect. It describes the terms under which elements can engage valid targets. Under normal conditions a rifleman or element would contact report a target and await authorisation to fire. A weapon control status modifies this condition and allows those elements to fire using self authorisation under certain conditions based on target identification criteria. The Commander sets and adjusts the weapon control state based on friendly and enemy disposition and clarity of the overall situation.

A weapon control state is not the same as the Rules of Engagement (ROE) or the Law of armed conflict (LOAC) which always apply.

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-351 - Observe the active weapons control state
T-I+ Skill

"Weapons Red"

  • Engage only if there is an imminent threat to life. 
  • Authorisation is required for all other targets
    • with the exception of immediate life-threatening situations. 
  • Return fire only if absolutely necessary. 
  • This state is typically used when stealth is important.

"Weapons Orange"

  • Return fire only and limit engagements to active threats against you or friendlies. 
  • Disengage if the threat ceases.
  • The most common state.

"Weapons Green"

  • Engage any confirmed enemy target.
  • This state is common in prolonged firefights, emphasising rapid response to enemy threats without the need for authorisation or detailed contact reports for each engagement.

FM/G139 - Fire control

Guide
FM/BG-702 - Type of fire - Point fire
Guide

Point fire is fire using a direct and controlled aim, for the specific purpose of hitting an individual target accurately.

Example:

  • A rifleman takes aim for an enemy combatant he can see in a window, releases controlled, accurate fire with the intended purpose of wounding the enemy
Guide
FM/BG-703 - Type of fire - Area fire
Guide

Area fire is aiming for a group of enemies close together, or an area of concealment that is hiding enemy units, with the intention not to hit any specific individual target, but to hit any target within the area of fire.

Example:

  • A rifleman engages a column of enemy infantry, with the intention of putting enough rounds towards the general location that it is likely to wound several enemy combatants.
  • A pilot, receiving an instruction to engage enemy infantry in a treeline, engages in area fire on that treeline. Despite not being able to see individual targets, the pilot knows they are there, and puts enough fire down in that area that it is likely to cause casualties.
Guide
FM/BG-704 - Type of fire - Suppressive fire
Guide

Suppressive fire is fire where the primary intention is not to hit an enemy target, but to fix them in place and prevent them from returning effective fire, by placing them in the position where if they were to try, they would likely be wounded. If enemy combatants are wounded, this is simply a benefit. Suppressing the enemy can be used for many reasons but the main reasons are; preventing a superior enemy from returning fire, providing the opportunity to get into cover, or keeping the enemy in place whilst friendly units flank them.

Examples:

  • A fireteam suppresses an enemy behind a wall, preventing them from moving without being hit, whilst another fireteam moves to the wall to finish the enemy
  • A pilot, seeing an enemy fixed wing making an attack run, suppresses the enemy by firing towards them as much as possible, causing them to have to disengage.
Guide
FM/BG-706 - Rate of fire - Deliberate
Guide

Deliberate fire is the a rate of fire that, looking to make deliberate and controlled shots towards a target that have a high chance of accuracy despite a slower pace. This is the standard and default rate of fire.

A rough guide for a standard rifleman, would be 1 round per 4 seconds, for a combined total of 1-1.5 round per second per fireteam

Guide
FM/BG-707 - Rate of fire - Rapid
Guide

Rapid fire is a rate of fire that is faster than deliberate in order to increase the volume of rounds towards the enemy, at the expense of accuracy. Often used to achieve suppressing fire, rapid fire is used sparingly, as its higher rate increases ammunition consumption.

A rough guide for a rifleman, is 1 round per second, for a total of 4-6 rounds per second from the fireteam.

Guide
FM/BG-708 - Rate of Fire - Burst
Guide

Burst fire, commonly used with automatic rifles or any rifle with the burst fire setting, achieves a rate much like deliberate fire, but instead of a single round, a burst of 3-5 rounds is fired.

Guide
FM/BG-709 - Fire control order
Guide

A fire control order (FCO) is used by an element leader to direct their element's fire quickly and effectively towards a target.

The acronym for fire control order is: GRIT

  1. GROUP: who is being addressed, "Section", "Fire Team" (Charlie or Delta), "No. 2 Rifleman", etc. 
  2. RANGE: the distance to the target. 
  3. INDICATION: in which direction to look and what to look for. 
  4. TYPE OF FIRE: the type of fire that is required.

Example:

FTL: ‘Green Team. 100m. Enemy infantry, North. Point fire!’

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-705 - Engage a target according to the given fire control order
T-II+ Skill

Engage the target specified in a given fire control order using:

  • the correct type of fire
  • using the correct rate of fire if specified, otherwise using an appropriate rate of fire depending on the target

FM/G18 - Vehicle class identification

Guide
FM/BG-101 - Vehicle identification overview
Guide

Vehicle identification is a useful skill for anyone on the battlefield, and a requirement for many of the more specialised roles. While some vehicles pose only a minimal threat, some can halt an entire platoon by themselves. As such accurate identification is crucial to good situational awareness, planning and tasking.

  • Identifying a vehicle can be done at three levels of depth:
    • Vehicle class
    • Subclass within vehicle class
    • Specific vehicle model
  • Not all vehicles within a class fall under a subclass.
  • Vehicle identification covers only military vehicles. 
  • Any other vehicle should be referred to by it's common name, e.g.
    • pickup 
    • truck
    • bicycle
    • jetski
Guide
FM/BG-129 - Common terminology for vehicle identification
Guide
  • Auto-cannon: an automatic gun with a caliber between 20-60 mm
  • Cannon: a gun bigger than an auto-cannon
  • Direct fire: firing a weapon within the line-of-sight of the user of the weapon in a (relatively) flat trajectory
  • Indirect fire: firing a weapon outside the line-of-sight of the user of the weapon
T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-102 - Identify light vehicles
T-II+ Skill

Rapidly identify a light vehicle as being:

  • Wheeled
  • Not armed with an autocannon or larger
  • Not classified as an AFV

Those at higher proficiency are able to identify the subclasses as:

  • Technical: civilian vehicle adapted for military use
  • MRAP: mine resistant and protected against small arms
  • Truck: military truck
A column of US Army M1114 uparmored HMMWV (or Humvee)

Above: A column of US Army M1114 uparmored HMMWV (or Humvee)

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-103 - Identify AFVs
T-II+ Skill

Rapidly identify a AFV as being:

  • Wheeled or tracked
  • Armed with nothing to cannon, intended for direct fire
  • Protected against at least small arms

Those at higher proficiency are able to identify the subclasses as:

  • APC: armed with up to a heavy machine-gun
  • IFV: armed with an autocannon
  • Assault gun: armed with a cannon
  • ATGM carrier: armed with ATGMs (anti-tank guided missile) as primary armament
US Army M1126 Stryker AFV on patrol

Above: US Army M1126 Stryker AFV on patrol

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-104 - Identify tanks
T-II+ Skill

Rapidly identify a tank as being:

  • Tracked
  • Turreted
  • Protected against at least auto-cannon fire
  • Having a cannon capable and intended for direct fire

There are no subclasses.

A section of US Army M1A2 SEPv2 Tanks engaging enemy forces

Above: A section of US Army M1A2 SEPv2 Tanks engaging enemy forces

T-III+ Skill
FM/BS-108 - Identify artillery
T-III+ Skill

Rapidly identify artillery as being:

  • Towed, wheeled or tracked
  • Having a cannon or rocket tubes intended for indirect fire

Those at higher proficiency are able to identify the subclasses as:

  • Towed artillery: cannot move by itself
  • Self propelled artillery: cannon/rocket tubes are mounted on a wheeled or tracked vehicle
M119 Howitzer towed artillery unit in it's deployed configuration

Above: M119 Howitzer towed artillery unit in it's deployed configuration

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-105 - Identify anti-air
T-II+ Skill

Rapidly identify anti-air being:

  • Primarily inteded for engaging helicopters or planes

Those at higher proficiency are able to identify the subclasses as:

  • AAA (anti-air artillery): primary armament is one or more guns
  • SAM: primary armament is surface-to-air missiles
ZSU-23 Shilka Anti-Aircraft System

Above: ZSU-23 Shilka Anti-Aircraft System

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-109 - Identify helicopters
T-II+ Skill

Rapidly identify a helicopter as being:

  • Capable of powered flight
  • Generating lift with one or more horizontally spinning fixed rotors

Those at higher proficiency are able to identify the subclasses as:

  • Utility helicopter: armament is only intended for self defense (e.g. a door gun)
  • Attack helicopter: armament is intended for offensive use (e.g. rocket pods)
US Army AH-64D Apache Gunship

Above: US Army AH-64D Apache Gunship

T-III+ Skill
FM/BS-465 - Identify tiltrotor aircraft
T-III+ Skill

Rapidly identify tiltrotor aircraft as being:

  • Capable of powered flight
  • Generating lift with one or more horizontally spinning rotors capable of rotating in flight

There are no subclasses.

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-107 - Identify planes
T-II+ Skill

Rapidly identify a plane as being:

  • Capable of powered flight
  • Generating lift with wings

Those at higher proficiency are able to identify the subclasses as:

  • Cargo plane: military plane used to ferry cargo or passengers
  • Attack plane: slower flying aircraft intended for ground attack
  • Fighter plane: fast flying aircraft intended to fight other planes
US Air Force A-10A Warthog releasing a GBU-48 Enhanced Paveway II

Above: US Air Force A-10A Warthog releasing a GBU-48 Enhanced Paveway II

FM/G96 - Map & Compass

Guide
FM/BG-480 - How to read a map
Guide

The main thing to remember is that the grids must be read right, and then up. Due to the fact that the map grid is composed entirely of numbers, it's important that you do not transpose them, else you're likely to send someone far, far away from where you needed them to go.

Read the x (horizontal) axis first, then read the y (vertical) axis

Above: Read the x (horizontal) axis first, then read the y (vertical) axis

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-476 - Read a six-figure grid reference
T-I+ Skill

Read grid coordinates to a 6 figure level (### “tack” ###) by combining the first 3 coordinate digits representing west-east and the first 3 coordinate digits representing south-north, with the resulting grid having a resolution of 100m.

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-477 - Read an eight-figure grid reference
T-II+ Skill

Read grid coordinates to a 8 figure level (#### “tack” ####) by combining the first 4 coordinate digits representing west-east and the first 4 coordinate digits representing south-north, with the resulting grid having a resolution of 10m.

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-478 - Recognise points of elevation & hill numbers
T-I+ Skill

Recognise points of elevation and hill numbers:

  • 2 or 3-digit numbers on the tops of hills are known as hill numbers and should be referenced as ‘Hill xxx’
  • The zoom scale of the map affects whether some of these numbers are visible (specifically the smaller/minor hills).
  • In mountainous or hilly terrain there may be multiple hills with the same number. In these circumstances, provide additional context, such as a grid reference to ensure clarity of communication.
T-III+ Skill
FM/BS-479 - Read contours intervals
T-III+ Skill

Read contour lines using the 2 types contour intervals marked on map:

  • Thinner brown lines representing the places of same height at the minor interval (listed in the map legend)
  • Thicker brown or red lines representing places of same height at the major interval level (5 times the minor interval)

Recognize the gradient (steepness) of the terrain, based on the spread of the contour lines (the closer contour lines are, the steeper the terrain)

FM/G136 - Infantry elements

Guide
FM/BG-712 - Combat buddy teams
Guide

Every infantryman operates within a buddy team, ensuring that everyone always has someone to rely on in combat. This approach provides mutual protection and improves combat effectiveness. Standardised in the platoon, buddy teams can be adjusted by fireteam leads based on the situation. The specific composition is indicated on the ORBAT.

Responsibilities

  • Always stay close to your buddy, within verbal range (shouting/talking distance) at all times.
  • Keep your buddy informed of your movements and actions to maintain situational awareness.
  • Cover your buddy’s movements, opposing sectors, and vulnerable moments.
  • If your buddy goes down, quickly assess the situation, provide cover, and extract them to safety.
  • Maintain mutual accountability, losing track of your buddy is as much your responsibility as theirs.
Guide
FM/BG-323 - Infantry fireteams
Guide

Each Fireteam consists of four to six players: a leader and 3 to 5 subordinates. New players will end up acting as a rifleman in one of the Fireteams. Riflemen will be under the charge of a more experienced player, acting as the Fireteam Leader (FTL). They in turn, will be under the command of a Squad Leader who leads the two Fireteams that make up each squad. Likewise, the Squad Leader will be under the command of the Platoon Commander, who commands the two or three squads that form the platoon. They are led by the Company Commander, who directs the movements of the platoons in their Company.

A typical fireteam in the field

Above: A typical fireteam in the field

FM/G68 - Working as an infantry element

Guide
FM/BG-324 - Working as a team
Guide

The key aspect of our organization is that of closely-knit teams. A rifleman by himself is not nearly as useful as a group of players working as one cohesive unit. Fireteams look out for their own members as well as those of their fellow fireteams. Fireteams are the tip of the infantry spear.

You will find yourself grouped with different players in different missions and your comprehension of this guide is what will allow you to all act as a cohesive and combat-effective group, regardless of who is in your fireteam specifically.

Within each fireteam, buddy teams are formed, typically composed of two members: a leader and a buddy. The leader guides the pair, making decisions and setting the pace, while the buddy supports the leader, covers blind spots, and helps maintain the effectiveness of the team.

A fireteam takes cover at a low stone wall

Above: A fireteam takes cover at a low stone wall

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-336 - Know the element
T-I+ Skill

Know who is in your element and what their role is. This makes it easier to understand and act on orders given by the element leader.

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-338 - Maintain element cohesion
T-I+ Skill

Remain within an appropriate distance of the other members of the element, such that:

  • Mutual support is possible
  • In-person communication, without using a radio, is possible
  • The element leader is aware of your position
T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-662 - Follow orders
T-I+ Skill

Actively listen for and follow the orders given by the element leader.

Policy
FM/BP-337 - Follow directions of leadership
Policy

Do not intentionally ignore the orders given by those in leadership positions.

Guide
FM/BG-660 - Effective infantry spacings
Guide

When it comes to infantry spacing, i.e. the appropriate distance between one individual and another, the specific distance should be dependent on terrain and circumstance, usually called out by the lead element e.g. the fireteam leader. For infantry, in thick, low visibility terrain or atmosphere, such as jungle or night-time forest, spacing should be as close as 3-5m, whereas in high visibility open terrain, such as desert or open fields in broad daylight, spacing can and should be up to 25m between each individual. The likelihood of mines/IEDs, or Indirect Fire (IDF) should also factor into the chosen spacing with higher risk, increasing the recommended spacing size.

Spacing is the distance that should be held in standard situations both when on the move and holding position, though it is allowable for individuals to move closer for specific reasons such as: buddy team medical assistance, ammo distribution, spotting etc, but individuals should always move back to an effective spacing as soon as these are completed.

 

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-339 - Maintain effective spacing
T-I+ Skill

Maintain an effective distance between yourself and others, striking a balance between cohesion and minimising potential casualties, based on:

  • The terrain being traversed
  • The threats faced
  • Visibility (foliage, fog,…)
Guide
FM/BG-340 - Situational awareness
Guide

Maintain situational awareness, avoid tunnel vision, and know where friendly forces are. This all helps to prevent being surprised by enemy contacts, prevents friendly-fire incidents by knowing where friendly forces are operating, and gives you an idea of what areas may need more observation based upon how the squad or platoon is oriented.

Players should, at any time, know roughly where their nearest friendly element is, where enemies are most likely to come from, and what the current tasking for their callsign is.

If context is not being provided on what we are doing and what friendlies are doing around us, ask!

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-661 - Maintain situational awareness
T-I+ Skill

Maintain awereness of:

  • Your position
  • The position of the members of your team
  • The general position of other friendly elements
  • Potential dangers
T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-341 - Cover a sector
T-I+ Skill

When moving, cover the direction appropriate for the given position in the formation.

When stationary, cover the direction instructed by the element leader. When no direction is specified, cover a direction and communicate that direction, such that the element combined has the best all-round coverage.

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-343 - Avoid crossing lines of fire
T-I+ Skill

Avoid crossing through lines of fire as much as possible, instead preferring to go behind the element that is (potentially) engaging. This includes elements providing base of fire, even if they are not actively engaging at the time.

FM/G65 - Basic marksmanship

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-276 - Adjust your aiming point for range to target
T-I+ Skill

Adjust your aiming point vertically relative to the target by:

  • estimating the distance to the target visually
  • adjusting based on previous shot impacts
T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-298 - Adjust your aiming point for moving targets
T-II+ Skill

Adjust your aiming point horizontally, relative to the target, by:

  • estimating the target speed visually
  • estimating the distance to the target visually
  • adjusting based on previous shot impacts
T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-296 - Control weapon sway caused by breathing
T-II+ Skill

Hold your breath when pulling the trigger to ensure steady aim.

Follow these principles for more effective breath control:

  • Be efficient and keep the held duration short to avoid getting winded.
  • Time your hold in the brief respiratory pause at the bottom of the movement cycle to better predict placement.
  • Learn to compensate for respiratory sway, as situations may arise that expose this technique as privileged for time.
T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-283 - Take into account bore offset when aiming your rifle
T-II+ Skill

When aiming your rifle, remember that at close ranges bullets will hit lower than what your sight is indicating because the sight is mounted above the barrel. This effect is even more pronounced if you are using the backup sights on a scope.

Sight line vs Bore line

Above: Sight line vs Bore line

Guide
FM/BG-407 - Choosing a shooting stance
Guide

Every shooting stance has advantages and disadvantages.

Standing

  • most visible shooter target profile
  • likely to clear ground-based obstacles with line of bore
  • quickest to assume
  • least stable, hardest to take long-range shots

Kneeling

  • makes use of ground-based cover such as rocks and low structures
  • reduces shooter target profile in the open
  • quick to assume
  • stable enough for extended-range shots
  • versatile

Sitting

  • low profile
  • useful to clear obstacles low to the ground, such as grass, that otherwise hinder prone shooting
  • low mobility, rendering reaction to fire delayed
  • very stable

Prone

  • lowest profile
  • low mobility while still allowing lateral reactions to fire by combat rolling
  • capable of shooting underneath obstacles, including cars by adjusting stance down or left / right
  • most stable
T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-297 - Use an appropriate shooting stance
T-I+ Skill

Use an appropriate shooting stance for the engement while taking into account available cover, sight stability and mobility requirements.

FM/G112 - Radio networks

Guide
FM/BG-679 - The radio and its purpose
Guide

A radio is a specialized communication device designed for use by armed forces to facilitate secure and reliable communication on the battlefield and during military operations.

The primary purpose of a radio is to enable effective coordination and command among elements, allowing for the swift transmission of orders, intelligence, and situational updates. This real-time communication capability is crucial for coordinating maneuvers, calling for support, reporting enemy positions, and ensuring overall operational efficiency and safety of personnel during operations.

Guide
FM/BG-680 - Set up a short range
Guide

During any operation that requires it, you'll be provided with an AN/PRC-152. It is the short range radio used by all elements. The main frequency is the channel (C1, C2,…) that is currently selected on the radio.

To set up your main frequency:

  1. Check with your leader or in the ORBAT what frequency you should be on
  2. Hover with your mouse on your current frequency (2) and type the desired frequency; eg. 271
  3. Click the ENT (4) button to enter (save) the frequency
  4. Check in with your team to see if the radio is working properly

Using the AN/PRC-152 you can also set up an additional frequency to communicate with other elements that aren't your own. The additional frequency is set manually and will show as “A#” in place of the channel name e.g. If channel 2 is selected as the alternate frequency, it will become A2.

To set up an additional frequency:

  1. Click the + button (5) to select the desired channel.
  2. Click the left arrow button (8) to set an additional channel. 
    1. At this point you should read A# (# being the channel number) instead of C#, next to the frequency number.
  3. Type the wanted frequency you want to use as additional; eg. 270
  4. Click the ENT (4) button to enter the frequency
  5. Click the - button (6) to return to your main frequency

If you want to dictate which ear you want the audio for your main and alternate channels to come out from, select the frequency you want to adjust and click the 0(9) button to modify the stereo settings. On the bottom right of the screen, you'll see an indicator that says either "left", "right" or "left and right". Ensure you do this for both your main and alternate channels on any radios you're using.

Now you should be able to hear both frequencies in different ears.

The BLUFOR issued AN/PRC-152 and its buttons explained.

Above: The BLUFOR issued AN/PRC-152 and its buttons explained.

FM/G111 - Phonetics

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-581 - Use the correct numerical pronounciation
T-II+ Skill

When pronouncing individual numerals over a radio channel, pronounce the numeral according to the following table:

NUMERALPRONOUNCED
0ZE-RO
1WUN
2TOO
3TREE
4FOW-ER
5FIFE
6SIX
7SEV-EN
8AIT
9NIN-ER

 

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-580 - Use the phonetic alphabet
T-I+ Skill

When pronouncing individual letters over a radio channel, replace the letter with the corresponding word from the following table:

LETTERWORDPRONUNCIATION
AALFAAL FAH
BBRAVOBRAH VOH
CCHARLIECHAR LEE OR SHAR LEE
DDELTADELL TAH
EECHOECH OH
FFOXTROTFOKS TROT
GGOLFGOLF
HHOTELHOH TELL
IINDIAIN DEE AH
JJULIETTJEW LEE ETT
KKILOKEY LOH
LLIMALEE MAH
MMIKEMIKE
NNOVEMBERNO VEM BER
OOSCAROSS CAH
PPAPAPAH PAH
QQUEBECKEH BECK
RROMEOROW ME OH
SSIERRASEE AIR RAH
TTANGOTANG GO
UUNIFORMYOU NEE FORM OR OO NEE FORM
VVICTORVIC TAH
WWHISKEYWISS KEY
XX-RAYECKS RAY
YYANKEEYANG KEY
ZZULUZOO LOO

 

FM/G9 - Sending a Contact report

Guide
FM/BG-39 - What is a contact report?
Guide

A contact report is a way for any member of the unit to concisely communicate important information about the enemy in a standard way. Being able to concisely report enemy locations is a critical communication skill to have. The sooner we know about enemy positions, and the faster it is passed to the entire squad, the better our survivability will be and the more effective we will be at reacting to threats.

A contact report consists of several key elements that must be presented in a specific order for it to be effective.

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-40 - Give a structured Contact Report
T-I+ Skill

1. ALERT: Begin with an alert pro-word. 

  • Use "Contact!" for entities in contact with the reporter
  • Use "Sighting!" for entities sighted but not in contact.

2. ORIENT: Provide direction using one of the following:

  • Relative direction (e.g. Front, Left, Right, Rear) if movement direction is established.
  • General compass bearing (e.g. South, South-east, South-south east).
  • Specific compass bearing in degrees for high precision (e.g., "BEARING 265").
  • Clock bearing for vehicle crews (e.g. "1 O'Clock"), though relative bearings are preferred.

3. DESCRIBE: Clearly and succinctly describe what you see (e.g. Infantry, Enemy patrol, APC, MBT, Machinegun nest).

4. EXPOUND: Give additional details such as:

  • Range (from general, e.g. "Close", to specific, e.g. "523 meters").
  • If only a relative bearing was initially given, provide a specific degree bearing.
  • Actions of the target (e.g. "They're flanking us").
  • Specific target positioning (e.g. "two soldiers on the roof, one in the building").

Example Contact Report: "Contact front! Enemy infantry in the open, bearing 210, three hundred meters!"

FM/G95 - Basic Smoke Colours

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-475 - Recognize the meaning of basic smoke colors
T-I+ Skill

Recognize the following meanings of smoke colors:

Smoke ColorMeaningCarried by
RedEnemy PositionTeam leaders+, FAC
BlueFriendly Position/LZTeam leaders+, FAC
GreenLOGPACK/Ammo dropSupport callsigns
PurpleMASCAS/MEDEVAC LZAll medical roles
OrangeDamaged Vehicle in need of repairsAll crew roles
WhiteConcealmentAll infantry
BlackOnly used by OPFOROPFOR
YellowUsed for specific purpose laid out in OPORDFriendly

FM/G94 - Infantry formations

Guide
FM/BG-691 - Introduction to formations
Guide

Formations are a set way of positioning members of an element during combat. These formations are used for several key reasons:

  1. Command and control: They allow leaders to effectively manage and direct their units, ensuring clear communication and efficient execution of orders.
  2. Mutual support and security: Soldiers in these formations can cover each other, provide overlapping fields of fire, and maintain situational awareness, enhancing their overall survivability and effectiveness.
  3. Team cohesion: By having a standard for where everyone should be, it is easier to maintain cohesion as an element
Guide
FM/BG-466 - Fireteam wedge
Guide

The wedge is a versatile formation that is easy to establish and control. It allows for good all-around observation and security, and can be used in the majority of situations encountered. Fire can be placed in any direction in good quantity, and a shift in formation upon contact is easy to accomplish to suit where the contact came from.

If contacted from the front or rear, the wedge allows for easy transition to a line formation. If attacked from either side, one buddy team is able to return fire whilst the other maneuvers to support them.

The fireteam leader will usually take the forward-most position, with the first buddy team to their left, and the second buddy team to their right. The fireteam leader may adjust positions within the formation based on need, such as putting the automatic rifleman to the front and the medic to the rear, but should generally avoid splitting buddy teams between the two sides.

 

Strengths:

  • Good all-around security
  • Allows balanced volume of fire in all directions
  • Good movement control, even with limited visibility or difficult terrain
  • Easily transitions to other formations

Weaknesses:

  • The balanced forward, rearward, and side firing angles are each limited compared to other formations
  • May not be suitable for restrictive terrain
A fireteam wedge, led by the fireteam leader

Above: A fireteam wedge, led by the fireteam leader

Guide
FM/BG-467 - Fireteam line
Guide

The line formation is well-suited for advancing towards a known or suspected threat with the maximum number of guns brought to bear, and excels at placing a heavy volume of fire to the formation's front.

 

Strengths:

  • Allows largest possible volume of fire forward and rearward
  • Good troop dispersion
  • Large area coverage
  • Easily transitions to base of fire, bounding overwatch, or flanking maneuvers

Weaknesses:

  • Vulnerable to both sides
  • Allows very limited volume of fire on both sides
  • Difficult to maneuver and control movement
  • Highly visible due to large area coverage
  • Ill-suited for maintaining stealth
A fireteam line

Above: A fireteam line

Guide
FM/BG-468 - Fireteam column
Guide

The fireteam column is the opposite of a fireteam line in that, instead of being lined up left-to-right, the fireteam is lined up front-to-back. In other words, a single column line. Each team member after the point man should walk the exact same path as the person in front of them, to minimize risk of exposure to environmental hazards (such as mines or IEDs), and to keep the team together in low-visibility environments and on difficult terrain. When available, a role with a mine detector, such as an EOD Specialist or combat engineer, should take point if such hazards are known or suspected in the area.

A column must be used with caution, as only the point man can immediately react to any contact from the front, while the rest of the team must maneuver to support. If the team is in a column because the area is dangerous, those maneuvers are especially risky.

 

Strengths:

  • Easiest formation to control, especially on difficult or restrictive terrain
  • Allows largest possible volume of fire on both sides
  • Easy to maintain at higher movement speeds
  • Ideal for maintaining stealth

Weaknesses:

  • Vulnerable to the front and rear
  • Allows very limited volume of fire forward
  • Often has poor dispersion of troops, especially with limited visibility
  • Difficult to transition to base of fire, bounding overwatch, or flanking maneuvers
A fireteam column, led by the fireteam leader

Above: A fireteam column, led by the fireteam leader

Guide
FM/BG-470 - Fireteam staggered column
Guide

The fireteam staggered column sees the fireteam split into two adjacent column formations, staggered so that each member of each column is diagonal from those in the adjacent column. They should never be directly next to each other, as this prevents one team member from being able to effectively return fire when contacted from the side. Additionally, being staggered improves the spacing between fireteam members, reducing risk from explosives and ambushes.

The staggered column is usually utilized when following a road, and is useful for scouting ahead of friendly vehicles and sweeping the road for hazards. It also allows the team to maintain improved security over a single column, while avoiding walking on the center of the road. The team can easily condense into a single column on either side of the road at any time.

The staggered column does make it more difficult to effectively return fire to the front without forming a wedge, though is still better than a single column formation.

Buddy teams should create the front and rear of the formation, not the left and right columns. When the team takes contact from front or rear, this allows one buddy team to return fire whilst the other maneuvers to support them. When taking contact from the sides, it allows for the quick formation of a fireteam line, with one buddy team on the left and right.

 

Strengths:

  • Good dispersion of troops
  • Allows large volume of fire on both sides
  • Better forward and rearward sectors of fire than a column
  • Good maneuverability and movement control

Weaknesses:

  • Fairly vulnerable to the front and rear
  • Allows limited volume of fire forward and rearward
  • Difficult to transition into base of fire, bounding overwatch, or flanking maneuvers
A fireteam staggered column, led by the fireteam leader

Above: A fireteam staggered column, led by the fireteam leader

Guide
FM/BG-469 - Fireteam echelon (left/right)
Guide

Echelon left/right comprises the fireteam creating a single diagonal line going rearwards from the given side of the point man, which is usually the fireteam leader. Echelon left means the fireteam will be on the point man’s left, while echelon right means the fireteam will be on the point man’s right.

Used when the fireteam has another element covering the echelon’s weak side (the left side of an echelon right, and vice versa). Most commonly used to create a squad wedge formation, which is two fireteam echelon formations connecting to form a protective wedge for the squad leader element.

 

Pros:

  • Allows excellent volume of fire on the specified side
  • Allows good volume of fire forward and rearward
  • Easily transitions to other formations

Cons:

  • Vulnerable to the opposite side without an adjacent element
  • Somewhat difficult to maneuver
  • Not suitable for restrictive terrain
An echelon left (top) and an echelon right (bottom), each led by the fireteam leader

Above: An echelon left (top) and an echelon right (bottom), each led by the fireteam leader

Guide
FM/BG-472 - Squad column
Guide

The squad column comprises a fireteam wedge at the front, the other fireteam wedge at the rear, and the squad Leader element in the middle. The most common squad formation, it allows contact from either side to be engaged by both fireteams, while contact from the front or rear allows one fireteam to establish a base of fire whilst the other maneuvers to support.

 

Pros:

  • Good all-around security
  • Allows large volume of fire to the sides
  • Good movement control with limited visibility or difficult terrain
  • Easily transitions to base of fire, bounding overwatch, or flanking maneuvers

Cons:

  • Allows limited volume of fire forward and rearward
  • May not be suitable for restrictive terrain
A squad column, led by the first fireteam leader

Above: A squad column, led by the first fireteam leader

Guide
FM/BG-471 - Squad wedge
Guide

The squad wedge is created by having two fireteams form an echelon left and an echelon right, and connecting at their point men, usually with the first fireteam leader or taking point. In other words, wherein the fireteam wedge has a buddy team on either side, the squad wedge has a Fireteam on either side. The squad leader element is positioned behind the front of the wedge, but still within the formation, for optimal security and control over the formation.

Just like the fireteam wedge, if contacted from the front or rear, the wedge allows for easy transition to a line formation. If attacked from either side, one fireteam is able to return fire whilst the other maneuvers to support them.

 

Pros:

  • Well-balanced for contact from the front, rear, and both sides
  • Balanced volume of fire forward, rearward, and to both sides
  • Good movement control, even with limited visibility or difficult terrain
  • Large area coverage
  • Easily transitions to other formations

Cons:

  • The balanced forward, rearward, and side firing angles are each limited compared to other formations
  • Highly visible due to large area coverage
  • May not be suitable for restrictive terrain
A squad wedge, led by the first fireteam leader

Above: A squad wedge, led by the first fireteam leader

Guide
FM/BG-473 - Squad file
Guide

The squad file comprises the whole squad as one single column line, with one Fireteam at the front, the squad leader element in the middle, and the other Fireteam at the rear.

Just like the fireteam column, the squad file is usually used when there is a risk of mines/IEDs or other UXOs, to minimize risk of detonation by ensuring each person steps exactly where the point man did. It can also be used to maintain stealth, as the point man only needs to find a single path for the entire squad, and can easily stop the formation to avoid detection.

 

Strengths:

  • Easiest formation to control, especially on difficult or restrictive terrain
  • Allows largest possible volume of fire on both sides
  • Easy to maintain at higher movement speeds
  • Ideal for maintaining stealth

Weaknesses:

  • Vulnerable to the front and rear
  • Allows very limited volume of fire forward
  • Poor dispersion of troops, especially with limited visibility
  • Difficult to transition into base of fire, bounding overwatch, or flanking maneuvers
A squad file, led by the first fireteam leader

Above: A squad file, led by the first fireteam leader

Guide
FM/BG-474 - Squad staggered column
Guide

The squad staggered column is created by having one fireteam in a staggered column at the front, the squad leader element in the middle, and the other fireteam in a staggered column at the rear. The formation can be done as either a single, unbroken staggered column, or with additional spacing between each element’s staggered column..

Similar to the fireteam staggered column, it is usually utilized when following a road, and is useful for scouting ahead of friendly vehicles and sweeping the road for hazards. It also allows the squad to maintain improved security while avoiding walking on the center of the road.

 

Strengths:

  • Good dispersion of troops
  • Allows large volume of fire on both sides
  • Better forward and rearward security than a file
  • Good maneuverability and movement control

Weaknesses:

  • Vulnerable to the front and rear
  • Allows limited volume of fire forward and rearward
  • Difficult to transition into base of fire, bounding overwatch, or flanking maneuvers
A squad staggered column, led by the first fireteam leader

Above: A squad staggered column, led by the first fireteam leader

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-666 - Maintain position in a formation
T-I+ Skill

Maintain the correct position in the formation set by the element leader.

FM/G103 - Bounding overwatch

Guide
FM/BG-505 - What is bounding overwatch?
Guide

Bounding overwatch is the process of ensuring that one team is moving, whilst another is stationary and providing overwatch. When a bounding maneuver is called there are five parts described:

  1. The type of bounding (successive or alternate)
  2. The maneuver element scale (individual, buddy team, fireteam, squad), 
  3. The direction of movement (bearing or landmark)
  4. (optional) The desired stop point (distance, location or number of bounds)
  5. Which element is moving first

E.g.:

  • A squad leader calling “This is Alpha 1-0. Successive, Fireteam bounding, towards that barn, 1 move" wants one Fireteam to move as a whole element, while the other provides cover, for one bound, then stop to allow the other Fireteam to move. He does not want the Fireteams to then utilise buddy team bounding.
  • A squad leader instructing teams to “Alternating, Buddy Team Bounding, North, 400m” implies that each Fireteam will move North at the same time, with one buddy team moving in each Fireteam at a time.
Guide
FM/BG-502 - How far to bound
Guide

The size of each bound should be based on the terrain, visibility, proximity of enemy threat, etc. For instance, bounds across relatively open terrain can be long - both in the interest of getting across as quickly as possible and because the range of the overwatch element is higher due to the open terrain. Urban bounds, on the other hand, are typically short due to the increased density of the area and the desire to maintain security and not overextend any one element.

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-503 - Bound using successive bounding
T-II+ Skill

Bound using the follow method:

  1. The lead element calls for bounding and designates which element will move first
    1. e.g. “This is actual. Successive Fireteam bounding North. 1 move first.”
  2. The first element acknowledges and shouts "Moving"
  3. The first element moves to a position and holds shouting “Set
  4. The second element shouts “Moving” and moves to the same position as the first, confirming “Set
  5. The first element now moves, again shouting “Moving”, to the next position and holds, shouting “Set” again
  6. The second element again calls and moves up to the same position as the first

This process is repeated until the unit reaches the desired end position.

Compared with FM/BS-504 - Bound using alternating bounding this process provides a higher level of security, but is slower.

Above:

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-504 - Bound using alternating bounding
T-II+ Skill

Bound using the follow method:

  1. The lead element calls for bounding and designates which element will move first
    1. e.g. “This is actual. Alternating Fireteam bounding North. 1 move first.”
  2. The first element acknowledges and shouts "Moving"
  3. The first element moves to a position and holds shouting “Set
  4. The second element shouts “Moving” and moves to a new position past the first element, confirming “Set
  5. The first element now moves, again shouting “Moving”, again passing the other element, to a futher position and holds, shouting “Set” again
  6. The second element again calls and moves past the first element.

This process is repeated until the unit reaches the desired end position.

Compared with FM/BS-503 - Bound using successive bounding this process is faster, but provides a lower level of security

Above:

FM/G120 - Peel Maneuver

Guide
FM/BG-597 - What is a peel
Guide

‘Peeling’ is a squad or fireteam movement used when encountering a larger force with overwhelming firepower. During a peel the team employs continuous suppressive fire while successively and rapidly moving, one person at a time, in the chosen direction. This is different to bounding as a peel implies a defensive tactic being performed, whereby a bound can be both offensive and defensive.

Guide
FM/BG-598 - When is a peel used
Guide

A peel is used when an element is operating on its own when no other forces are available to provide mutual support, and splitting the element would be detrimental to the engagement. The engagement is maintained until contact is successfully broken and the element is safe or until a mutual support element is in place to provide fire to cover their withdrawal.

Guide
FM/BG-601 - Center peel vs line peel
Guide

A center peel is used when the element encounters an overwhelming force from the front, especially in staggered column, and needs to withdraw to their rear. This will be used when operating in urban terrain and the element needs to move back down a street or in open terrain where natural cover and concealment is to the rear.

A line peel is used when the element encounters an overwhelming force from the front and needs to withdraw to cover on their right or left. This will be used in urban terrain when moving off a main street onto a side road or when out in the open to move towards natural cover and concealment.

T-III+ Skill
FM/BS-599 - Peel using a center peel
T-III+ Skill

Peel using the following method:

  1. The element under fire immediately forms and maintains a staggered column towards the contact, with at least enough room in the middle for one person to sprint through.
  2. The two persons abreast facing the contact begin suppressive fire.
  3. The person furthest up disengages, shouts ‘MOVING!’ and turns inwards to run down the column to take the rearmost position on the same side, then calls ‘SET!
  4. As soon as the first person passes the next on the opposite side, they also immediately disengage, shouting ‘MOVING’ to run down the column and calling ‘SET!’ in the rear.
  5. This continues down the column until the leader calls the transition to a different manoeuvre towards a safe position or support arrives.
Center peel diagram

Above: Center peel diagram

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-600 - Peel using a line peel
T-II+ Skill

Peel using the following method:

  1. The unit under fire immediately forms a line with all guns facing the direction of contact and initiating suppressive fire.
  2. The person on the far end of the line disengages, shouting ‘MOVING!’, and runs passing behind the line towards the designated direction of retreat, then calls ‘SET!’
  3. As soon as the next person in line on the far end is passed by the first, they disengage shouting ‘MOVING!’, continuing the cycle.
  4. This process repeats, shuffling the unit sideways one by one while keeping up suppression until disengaged.
Line peel diagram

Above: Line peel diagram

FM/G107 - Military Operations in Urban Terrain (MOUT)

Guide
FM/BG-535 - Sectors in MOUT
Guide

As always when in an infantry role covering your sector is key in MOUT, if anything it is more important. When watching your sectors there are particular MOUT specific considerations:

  • MOUT environments have a vertical element, ensure that you are watching windows as well as ground level
  • Think carefully about your stance, communicating with your team to provide maximum security
Two infantry cover a sector high/low with appropriate stances

Above: Two infantry cover a sector high/low with appropriate stances

T-III+ Skill
FM/BS-587 - Watch your sector in MOUT street maneuvers
T-III+ Skill

Watch the correct sector depending on your position in a formation moving down a street where:

  • The front man watches "front"
  • The second man watches "inside"
  • The third man watches "across"
  • The last man watches "rear"

Any other personnel between the 3rd and rear man (4th or 5th members of a 6-man team etc.) also watch "across" but at different heights, i.e. ground vs. multi-storey windows.

A 4-man and 5-man examples of formation when moving down a street

Above: A 4-man and 5-man examples of formation when moving down a street

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-534 - Stay out of killzones
T-I+ Skill

Stay away from potential killzones where possible, especially out of the open in urban terrain as this is a natural killzone. Instead, maximize the use of cover like walls and structures.

T-III+ Skill
FM/BS-539 - Cross a danger area as a team
T-III+ Skill

Cross a danger area using the following method:

  1. First man gets set on the last piece of cover before the danger area, covering the danger area itself, and checks for possible threats. 
  2. When they are ready, they announce ‘Set’
  3. The second man, then moves past, shouting ‘Crossing’ and sprints across the danger area to the cover on the other side.
  4. They take cover slightly further on from the danger area and keep their direction of travel covered i.e. the front.
  5. This continues with each person crossing the danger area under the cover of the lead man, but ensuring that there is only 1 or 2 players in the danger area at any one time, limiting the risk.
  6. The second to last man shouts ‘Last man’ to the man covering the danger area as they pass them to cross
  7. After crossing, they then turn and cover the danger area, announcing ‘Set’ to the last man.
  8. The last man crosses the danger area and his team on the other side
  9. They move past and retake their place as the first man. The team is now across the danger area and in the same formation as they were before.
A team leader rushes across a danger area as his team provides cover

Above: A team leader rushes across a danger area as his team provides cover

Guide
FM/BG-588 - High and low stacking
Guide

When covering corners, if one player kneels while another stands behind them, two pairs of eyes and two rifles can cover the same area, increasing effectiveness. This is commonly known as a "high/low stack" and can be employed naturally whenever the situation allows. Note that the kneeling player must not stand unless he has cleared it with the standing player - else he's likely to stand up into a bullet.

2 players using High/Low stacking to maximize fire around a corner

Above: 2 players using High/Low stacking to maximize fire around a corner

Guide
FM/BG-681 - MOUT as a Squad
Guide

A Fireteam is never alone during MOUT, a common situation will be a squad of two teams working in the same area towards a set goal. 

Contrary to a Squad Staggered Column, the teams would each have a designated flank, and they are to advance together through the obstacles. It is important to have the same pacing between the two teams. This may come in the form of short halts to let the other team catch up safely, or coordinating the crossing of danger areas to sync sector coverage. Maintaining pacing also allows for street side sector to cover and alert the other element of danger on their side (contact on higher floors or behind corners)

FM/G98 - Close quarters combat (CQC)

Guide
FM/BG-483 - Single stacking up on an entry point
Guide

There are two ways that a breaching team can ‘stack up’ on a door – one is with all the members on the same side of the doorway (“stack”). If this is the case, the first man will state his entry type (“Cross!” or “Hook!”), with the following team members doing the opposite of the person in front of him/her. If the entry type is not stated, the second man simply does the opposite of what the entry man does, third man does the opposite of the second man, etc.

When ordering a stack, the lead man will either say "stack left" or "stack right" - the directions are relative to facing the doorway. "Stack left" will result in the entry team being on the left side of the door.

The following is a general description of the duties of the breaching team when stacking. Keep in mind that these duties are very contextual, and the focus should be on fluidity rather than doing things exactly by the book.

One Man: The point man, will before the breach maintain security of the breach and never take his eyes or gun away from it. The One Man will initiate the breach when the rest of the breaching team is ready.

Two Man: Keeps security long before breach. If the room needs to be prepped with frags or stuns, this will be the Two Man’s duty.

Three (+Four & Five if applicable) Man: Keeps security to the side (2-4 o’clock) of the stack. If more than four in the team, Three watches ground floor, Four takes upper floors, Five watches 4 o'clock (side-rear).

Last Man (all team sizes): Takes rear security, watching behind the team. The last man is always in the last man role, regardless of team size e.g. In a Fireteam of five, the Fifth man does the last man role and watches the rear, not the “Five man” role described above.

Example of a single stack left, demonstrating how the 2nd man is the person to deploy grenades if needed, to ensure the point man -always- has eyes on the doorway and trigger finger ready

Above: Example of a single stack left, demonstrating how the 2nd man is the person to deploy grenades if needed, to ensure the point man -always- has eyes on the doorway and trigger finger ready

Guide
FM/BG-482 - Split stacking up on an entry point
Guide

The other option is to split the stack into two, one on either side of the doorway ("split stack"). The One Man will state his entry type, and the other members of the breaching team will prepare to do a similar type of entry, except that the team in the other stack will do so from the opposite side of the door. This type of stack is best assumed when a closed door is present - moving across an open doorway for the sake of setting up a 'split stack' should never be done.

The following is a general description of the duties of the breaching team when performing a split stack. Again, keep in mind that the focus should be on fluidity rather than doing things by the book.

One Man: The point man, will before the breach maintain security of the breach and never take his eyes or gun away from it. Unless otherwise signaled, will be situated on the left hand side of the breach.

Two Man: On the opposite side of the breach, will provide cross cover into the breach

Three Man: Behind One Man, provides cover side front (approx 1 to 3 o’clock) from their perspective. If the room needs to be prepped with frag or stun grenades, this is the duty of the Three Man.

Four Man: Behind Two Man, provides cover ‘rear’ or ‘away’ if there are more men behind.

An example of a 6-man team split stacking and executing a 'hook' entry. Notice that the 1st man is on the left of the doorway, and the grenadier is still the man behind him, therefore the 4th man is covering 'away' from the door

Above: An example of a 6-man team split stacking and executing a 'hook' entry. Notice that the 1st man is on the left of the doorway, and the grenadier is still the man behind him, therefore the 4th man is covering 'away' from the door

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-675 - Stack up on an entry point
T-II+ Skill

Stack up on an entry point using on of the following methods:

  • Single stack: all members of the team stack up on a single side of the door
  • Split stack: all members of the team distribute themselves and stack up on opposite sides of the door
T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-694 - Use grenades when clearing a room
T-I+ Skill

When clearing a room with no non-combatents inside, throw in a offensive grenade (fragmentation, concussion) before entering the room

If there are non-combatents inside or when executing a capture mission, flashbangs can be used instead.

T-III+ Skill
FM/BS-488 - Pie an entry point or other opening
T-III+ Skill

Before entering an entry point or when passing close by an opening in a building, pie it by deliberately maving from one side to the other while looking inside.This allows for visually clearing everything except for a corner or two.

A demonstration of pieing an entryway

Above: A demonstration of pieing an entryway

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-692 - Enter a room to clear it
T-II+ Skill

Enter a room using on of the two following methods:

  • Hook: enter and immediatly turn back to the side your were stacked, essentially making a U-turn.
  • Cross: enter and continue moving in the same direction, ending up on the opposite side of where you were stacked.
T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-486 - Move and clear through a room
T-II+ Skill

Once inside a room move and clear in the following manner:

  • Move following the outside wall, and don't stop until the room has been cleared
  • Clear the corner closest to you on your side of the room
  • Clear the corner furthest from you on your side of the room
  • Clear the center of the room
T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-693 - Communicate when an area, room or building is clear
T-II+ Skill

Say "Clear" when an area, room or building has been cleared.

If the area, room or building can be ambiguous, prepend it before saying clear: "{area} clear"

FM/G119 - Working with vehicles

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-515 - Behave appropriately inside a vehicle
T-I+ Skill
  • Stay off crew intercom, and join cargo if crew was selected by default
  • Do not try to interact directly with the crew, regardless of the situation
  • Casual conversation is allowed, unless instructed otherwise by the crew/leadership
  • Cease casual conversation automatically when in contact or in an emergency
Guide
FM/BG-596 - Vehicles in an urban environment
Guide

When vehicles are moving with you in an urban environment you must stay on the sides of the road, ahead of the vehicle, as the most dangerous place to be is in front of or behind the vehicle. This is because;

  • Vehicles will move without communicating and you don't want to be run over
  • If you are working with MBT's standing in front when they fire will result in over-pressure injuries which are often fatal
  • The crew's visibility when in the vehicle is very limited, they will assume you are on the sides of the road and out of the way
  • The most dangerous threat for any vehicle in an urban environment, is the hidden OPFOR AV-man. Infantry should be clearing windows and passages ahead of the vehicle to reduce this threat.
  • The second most dangerous is the IED. Infantry should be scouting just ahead, looking for any IEDs that may threaten the vehicle.
T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-516 - Dismount vehicles
T-I+ Skill
  • Before dismounting, the call "Dismount" will be given by the crew
  • After dismounting the vehicle move away from the vehicle without crossing in front or behind the vehicle, to prevent being run over, or stopping the vehicle from moving as it needs to.
T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-514 - Call when mounted up
T-I+ Skill

When mounting in a vehicle, announce to the fireteam leader when your are mounted over the radio.

‘{name} up’

This allows fireteam leaders to then notify the squad leader and so on and ensure that everyone who needs to be on board, is on board before the vehicle departs.

FM/G97 - Working with Helicopters

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-481 - Approach helicopters safely
T-I+ Skill

When approaching a helicopter, keep in mind the following factors:

  • Avoid crossing the door gunner firing arcs
  • Avoid getting near the tail rotor, especially the side of the tail that the tail rotor is on
  • Avoid approaching and standing directly in front of the helicopter, as this is the direction in which the helicopter will move when taking off
  • Be mindful of the clearance between your head and the main rotor, especially on uneven terrain

In practice, this means:

  • Approach helicopters that load from the side from the side, preferably slightly from the rear
  • Approach helicopters that load from the rear directly from the rear
Infantry moving to a Ghosthawk to mount

Above: Infantry moving to a Ghosthawk to mount

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-515 - Behave appropriately inside a vehicle
T-I+ Skill
  • Stay off crew intercom, and join cargo if crew was selected by default
  • Do not try to interact directly with the crew, regardless of the situation
  • Casual conversation is allowed, unless instructed otherwise by the crew/leadership
  • Cease casual conversation automatically when in contact or in an emergency
T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-516 - Dismount vehicles
T-I+ Skill
  • Before dismounting, the call "Dismount" will be given by the crew
  • After dismounting the vehicle move away from the vehicle without crossing in front or behind the vehicle, to prevent being run over, or stopping the vehicle from moving as it needs to.
T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-514 - Call when mounted up
T-I+ Skill

When mounting in a vehicle, announce to the fireteam leader when your are mounted over the radio.

‘{name} up’

This allows fireteam leaders to then notify the squad leader and so on and ensure that everyone who needs to be on board, is on board before the vehicle departs.

FM/G104 - Parachuting

Guide
FM/BG-508 - Types of parachute
Guide

When it comes to parachuting into combat zones, there are two basic styles of parachutes used. The first is a round, static-line chute. This allows for minimal control during descent, and the deployment of the chute automatically occurs as you leave the aircraft. The second style, typically used by smaller, more highly-trained units is a ram-air maneuverable parachute that is manually deployed by you after leaving the aircraft.

Guide
FM/BG-511 - Parachute descending with a deployed chute
Guide

Both styles of insertion give you some degree of control over your descent. With static line “round chutes” having significantly less. Parafoils give you much greater maneuverability during the descent. While in flight, you’ll be able to turn, accelerate, decelerate, and flare the chute.

This high level of control allows you great flexibility to choose a landing site that works best for you and your team as long as you’re high enough in the air, almost anything you can see can be reached by gliding to it. The Arma 3 parafoil can reach a forward speed of over 50kph, though this brings with it a more rapid descent rate. For maximum glide range, try to stay closer to 15 to 20kph; while you’ll be in the air longer, your total ground distance covered will significantly increase. As you descend, you’ll find that wind will disrupt your flight and push you off course.

This wind drift must be accounted for and monitored, particularly in low-visibility situations such as night drops. Ensure your team is navigating and adjusting the flight path during the descent, else you’re likely to end up a significant distance from where you’d intended.

T-III+ Skill
FM/BS-509 - Perform a HALO drop – High Altitude, Low Opening
T-III+ Skill

In HALO, the chute is deployed at low altitude to minimize the time spent under canopy. 

  • Steer towards the target during freefall, as minimal moaneuvering will be possible with the parachute
  • Open the parachute around 200m AGL (above ground level)
T-III+ Skill
FM/BS-510 - Perform a HAHO drop - High Altitude, High Opening
T-III+ Skill

In HAHO, the chute is deployed at a much higher altitude in order to cover a large distance towards the LZ.The ram-air parachutes allow for substantial ground to be covered during flight, to the point that the plane initiating the drop can be 50+ kilometers from the drop zone when the paratroopers exit the aircraft. 

  • Open the parachute on exiting the aircraft
  • Join formation with the person designated as guiding element, and descent in formation
T-III+ Skill
FM/BS-512 - Flare on landing
T-III+ Skill

Landing a parachute at high speed can injure or kill you. To prevent this:

  • Reduce forward speed to nearly zero just before landing
  • Flare backwards just before touching the ground
Excluded Skill
FM/BS-513 - Lead a parachute jump as jumpmaster
Excluded Skill

When leading a parachute jump as jump master:

  1. Ensure that parachutes (and altimeters if era-appropriate) are available for every paratrooper to collect
  2. Ensure that every paratrooper has backpack on chest and parachute on back before entering the vehicle
  3. Ensure that every paratrooper has a unique number from 1 to X designating the order they will leave the plane on command
  4. Confirm the LZ to the paratroopers and the recommended altitude to open the parachute (ASL and AGL) for the LZ
  5. Explain the process of jumping while on route, to ensure first time jumpers know the process as well
  6. Switch the light to red in the vehicle, and ensure the paratroopers are quiet and ready to jump
  7. Switch the light to green and call each number in order, instructing paratroopers to jump when they hear their number

FM/G85 - Bandages

Guide
FM/BG-436 - Introduction to Bandages
Guide

All personnel are equipped with bandages to provide initial treatment for wounds until they can receive more advanced medical care. There are four distinct types of bandages, each varying in the time required for application and the duration of effectiveness. 

  • Elastic bandages are recommended for situations where quick application is crucial, despite their lower durability. 
  • QuikClot bandages are best for long-lasting wound protection, offering the highest endurance. 
  • Packing bandages present a balanced option, optimising for application speed, wound coverage, and durability.
Guide
FM/BG-437 - Field Dressings (Basic Bandage)
Guide

Field dressings also known as Bandage (Basic) are the most fundamental type of bandages available to us, primarily used for managing low-priority wounds quickly, as well as for treating crush and puncture wounds effectively.

A Field Dressing as seen in the inventory

Above: A Field Dressing as seen in the inventory

Guide
FM/BG-438 - Elastic Bandages
Guide

Elastic bandages are valued for their rapid application and effectiveness in temporarily closing wounds. They are often the preferred choice in scenarios involving severely injured individuals or mass casualty incidents because of their speed of use. However, their low durability means they must be replaced frequently. Since they do not promote blood coagulation, once they come off, bleeding is likely to restart.

A Elastic Bandage as seen in the inventory

Above: A Elastic Bandage as seen in the inventory

Guide
FM/BG-439 - Packing Bandages
Guide

Packing bandages, although not quite as efficient as elastic bandages in closing wounds, offer significantly greater durability. This feature makes them ideal for situations where a medic is unable to suture wounds promptly. Like elastic bandages, packing bandages also do not promote blood coagulation.

A Packing Bandage as seen in the inventory

Above: A Packing Bandage as seen in the inventory

Guide
FM/BG-440 - QuickClot Bandages
Guide

QuikClot bandages are notably less efficient at closing wounds compared to elastic bandages, requiring more time and patience for application. This makes them a slower option than both elastic and packing bandages. However, QuikClot bandages offer significant advantages: they are durable and facilitate blood coagulation, allowing for a "set and forget" approach to wound care. This characteristic is especially valuable in scenarios with fewer wounds or when Combat Life Savers (CLS) or medical personnel are not immediately available. It's important to note, however, that QuikClot bandages are slightly less effective on crush and laceration wounds.

A QuickClot Bandage as seen in the inventory

Above: A QuickClot Bandage as seen in the inventory

FM/G86 - Basic Medical Equipment

Policy
FM/BP-397 - Role specific: Medics
Policy

Combat Life Saver

A CCL including the following additional items:

EquipmentMinimumOptimal
Elastic Bandage20x40x
Packing Bandage10x20x
Quikclot10x20x
Epinephrine Auto Injector4x8x
Guedel Tube2x8x
Morphine Auto Injector2x8x
Splint4x6x
Surgical Kit1x1x
Tourniquet8x10x
Ammonium Carbonate1x4x
Combat pill pack2x4x
Purple Smoke Grenade2x2x

Combat Medic

A CCL including the following additional items:

EquipmentMinimumOptimal
16g IV4x10x
Elastic Bandage20x40x
Packing Bandage10x20x
Quikclot10x20x
Blood (1000ml)5x5x
Blood (500ml)5x5x
Blood (250ml)Optional10x
Epinephrine Auto Injector2x10x
King LT2x8x
Morphine Auto Injector2x10x
Personal Aid Kit1x1x
Splint4x6x
Surgical Kit1x1x
Tourniquet8x10x
Ammonium Carbonate1x4x
Combat pill pack2x4x
Purple Smoke Grenade2x2x

Squad Medic

As per Combat Medic, with the following changes:

  • Norepinephrine: +4 units minimal, +8 units optimal.
  • Phenylephrine: +4 units minimal, +6 units optimal.
  • Pulse Oximeter: +1

 

Platoon Medic

A CCL including the following additional items:

EquipmentMinimumOptimal
16g IV4x10x
Accuvac1x1x
Automated External Defibrillator1x1x
Elastic Bandage20x40x
Packing Bandage10x20x
Quikclot10x20x
Blood (1000ml)5x5x
Blood (500ml)5x5x
Blood (250ml)Optional5x
BodybagOptional1x
EACA4x10x
Epinephrine Auto Injector2x10x
FentanylOptional4x
Field Blood Transfusion Kit (250ml)Optional2x
Field Blood Transfusion Kit (500ml)Optional2x
KingLT2x8x
Morphine Auto Injector2x10x
Norepinephrine4x8x
Personal Aid KitOptional1x
Phenylephrine4x6x
Pulse Oximeter1x1x
Splint4x6x
Surgical Kit1x1x
Tourniquet8x10x
TXA4x8x
Ammonium Carbonate1x4x
Combat pill pack2x4x
Purple Smoke Grenade2x2x

SF Medic

A CCL including the following additional items:

EquipmentMinimumOptimal
16g IV4x10x
AED-X1x1x
Amiodarone2x6x
Elastic Bandage20x30x
Packing Bandage10x20x
Quikclot10x20x
Blood (1000ml)5x5x
Blood (500ml)5x5x
Blood (250ml)Optional5x
BodybagOptional1x
EACA4x6x
Epinephrine Auto Injector2x10x
FAST IO2x6x
Field Blood Transfusion Kit (250ml)Optional2x
Field Blood Transfusion Kit (500ml)Optional2x
KingLT2x8x
Lidocaine2x6x
Morphine Auto Injector2x10x
Norepinephrine4x8x
Personal Aid KitOptional1x
Phenylephrine4x6x
Splint4x6x
Surgical Kit1x1x
Tourniquet8x10x
TXA4x8x
Ammonium Carbonate1x4x
Combat pill pack2x4x
Purple Smoke Grenade2x2x

Technicians from a Medical Emergency Response Team (MERT) and Combat Medical Team (CMT)

All roles must contain a CCL in addition to:

  • MERT roles may in addition include Flight Crew uniforms/helmets
EquipmentMinimumOptimal
16g IV4x10x
Accuvac1x1x
AED-X1x1x
Amiodarone2x6x
Elastic Bandage20x40x
Packing Bandage10x20x
Quikclot10x20x
Blood (1000ml)5x5x
Blood (500ml)5x5x
Blood (250ml)Optional5x
BodybagOptional1x
EACA4x10x
Epinephrine Auto Injector4x10x
FAST IO2x6x
FentanylOptional4x
Field Blood Transfusion Kit (250ml)Optional2x
Field Blood Transfusion Kit (500ml)Optional2x
KingLT2x8x
Lidocaine2x6x
Morphine Auto Injector2x10x
Norepinephrine4x8x
Personal Aid KitOptional1x
Phenylephrine4x6x
Pulse Oximeter1x1x
Splint6x6x
Tourniquet8x10x
TXA4x8x
Ammonium Carbonate1x4x
Combat pill pack2x4x
Purple Smoke Grenade2x2x

MERT/CMT Leader/Officer

  • Long Range Radio
  • CCL
  • The same medical equipment as the technicians above.
Guide
FM/BG-441 - Tourniquets
Guide

Tourniquets are used to restrict blood flow to an injured limb, effectively halting bleeding as a temporary measure. This is particularly useful in situations where a casualty has multiple wounds, allowing you to prioritise which injuries to address first. 

However, tourniquets also have drawbacks: they make it impossible to check the pulse or blood pressure in the affected limb. Moreover, if left in place for an extended period, they can cause significant pain. Additionally, tourniquets inhibit the administration of medications and the performance of blood transfusions to the injured limb.

A Tourniquet as seen in the inventory

Above: A Tourniquet as seen in the inventory

Guide
FM/BG-442 - Splints
Guide

Splints are designed to support broken limbs, enabling a partial restoration of the limb's mobility and function as a temporary solution until more comprehensive treatment can be administered.

A Splint as seen in the inventory

Above: A Splint as seen in the inventory

Guide
FM/BG-443 - Personal Aid Kits (PAK)
Guide

Personal Aid Kits (PAK) represent a significant advancement in medical technology, providing medics with the capability to fully restore a patient's vital signs and bodily functions. In practice, this means healing all wounds and mending broken limbs. However, the use of PAKs necessitates medical expertise and typically requires support from medical vehicles or facilities to ensure proper application.

A Personal Aid Kit (PAK) as seen in the inventory

Above: A Personal Aid Kit (PAK) as seen in the inventory

FM/G37 - Buddy care

Guide
FM/BG-431 - Step 1: Report
Guide
  • As soon as a person is wounded, you should immediately inform your Chain of Command about the incident and the casualty.
  • Provide a brief report that includes the number of casualties and the location, which will help in planning an immediate medical response.
  • Use clear and concise communication to ensure the message is understood.
Guide
FM/BG-430 - Step 2: Secure
Guide
  • Prioritise safety by first winning the firefight to reduce further risk to yourself and the casualty.
  • If the situation is too dangerous to administer first aid on the spot, use the ace interaction to drag or carry the casualty to a safer location, such as behind cover or a concealed area away from immediate threat.
Guide
FM/BG-432 - Step 3: Immediate Treatment (B.A.B.E)
Guide

Bleeding

  • Quickly apply tourniquets to bleeding limbs or bandages if no other areas are wounded. 
  • Aim for this to take no longer than 30 seconds. 
  • If there's significant blood loss, call for advanced medical help.

Airway: Check the airway in the medical menu. 

  • If occluded, turn the head until it's clear. 
  • If obstructed, hyperextend the head within 2 meters to maintain clearance.

Beating Heart:

  • Check pulse
  • If there's no heart rate
    • Perform CPR for two minutes by selecting it when the chest is highlighted. 
    • Re-check the pulse afterward.

Evacuation

  • Move the casualty to a Casualty Collection Point (CCP) for medical personnel to take over.
An infographic summarizing first aid procedures for bleeding control, airway management, resuscitation, and casualty evacuation, with specific instructions for severe blood loss and shock treatment.

Above: An infographic summarizing first aid procedures for bleeding control, airway management, resuscitation, and casualty evacuation, with specific instructions for severe blood loss and shock treatment.

Guide
FM/BG-433 - Step 4: Treat Other Injuries
Guide

After addressing life-threatening bleeding and airway issues, assess the casualty for other injuries.

  • Start with untreated wounds on the head and chest. 
    • Bandage these areas thoroughly because you can't use tourniquets here, and injuries to these regions can be critical.
  • Move on to limbs with the least severe wounds. 
    • This helps to stabilise the casualty but also streamlines the process for incoming medical personnel.
  • After bandaging, if you identify any broken limbs, apply splints.
Guide
FM/BG-434 - Step 5: Monitor
Guide

Continue to monitor the casualty's condition by regularly checking their breathing, bleeding, and consciousness.

  • Repeat the treatments from Steps 3 and 4 as necessary this includes;
    • checking and reapplying bandages
    • ensuring airways remain clear
    • monitoring for signs of circulation.
  • Stay with the casualty until they regain consciousness or until medical personnel arrive. 
  • Provide updates to medical personnel upon their arrival and assist as directed.

If you are instructed by medical personnel or your duties require you to rejoin your unit, ensure that the casualty is left in capable hands before departing.

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-167 - Give first aid to an unconscious patient
T-I+ Skill

When giving first aid to a patient, follow the following steps:

  • Minimize long term blood loss in 30 seconds or less (time it takes to apply 4 tourniquets or 3 bandages)
    • if unsure, tourniquet wounded limbs
  • Manage the airway
  • Perform further treatment as needed

FM/G87 - Dealing with wounds

Guide
FM/BG-444 - Types of wounds
Guide

Abrasions (or scrapes)

  • They occur when the skin is rubbed away by friction against another rough surface.
  • Sources: falling, vehicle crashes.
  • Effects: pain - extremely light, bleeding - extremely slowly.

Avulsions

  • Occur when an entire structure or part of it is forcibly pulled away, such as the loss of a permanent tooth or an ear lobe.
  • Sources: explosions, vehicle crashes, grenades, artillery shells, bullets, backblast.
  • Effects: pain - extremely high, bleeding - extremely fast (depends on wound size).

Contusions (Bruises)

  • Also called bruises, these are the result of a forceful trauma that injures an internal structure without breaking the skin.
  • Sources: bullets, backblast, vehicle crashes, falling.
  • Effects: pain - light, no bleeding.

Crush wounds (crushed tissue)

  • Occur when a heavy object falls onto a person, splitting the skin and shattering or tearing underlying structures.
  • Sources: falling, vehicle crashes.
  • Effects: pain - light, bleeding - extremely slowly.

Cut wound

  • Slicing wounds made with a sharp instrument, leaving even edges.
  • Sources: vehicle crashes, grenades, explosions, artillery shells, backblast.
  • Effects: pain - light, bleeding - speed depends on length and size of the wound.

Lacerations (tears)

  • These are separating wounds that produce ragged edges.
  • Sources: vehicle crashes.
  • Effects: pain - light, bleeding - slow to medium speed (depends on wound size).

Velocity wounds

  • They are caused by an object entering the body at a high speed, typically a bullet or small pieces of shrapnel.
  • Sources: bullets, grenades, explosions, artillery shells.
  • Effects: pain - extremely high, bleeding - medium speed (depends on wound size).

Puncture wounds

  • Deep, narrow wounds produced by sharp objects such as nails, knives, and broken glass.
  • Sources: shrapnel, grenades.
  • Effects: pain - light, bleeding - slowly.

Fractures

  • Fractures cause pain, increased weapon sway (when arms) or inability to jog or run forcing the player into a limp (when legs). 
  • Fractures in ACE3 are not fatal. So are far lower on the priority list in regards to treatment. 
  • Focus on stabilising the patient first, then once stable, apply a splint to their fractured limb/s.
T-III+ Skill
FM/BS-445 - Use the most effective bandage available to close wounds
T-III+ Skill

Wherever practically possible using the correct bandage is essential for efficient wound management.

  • Elastic Bandage: Quick closure for many wounds; use when speed is key and durability isn't crucial.
  • Packing Bandage: Ideal in combat; designed for immediate bleeding control.
  • QuickClot Bandage: For non-combat situations; speeds up clotting when stitching isn't an option soon.
  • Field Dressing (Basic) Bandage: A versatile option when others aren’t available; useful for initial wound care.

Considerations

  • Situation: Combat status and resource availability.

Chooses based on the situation, wound type, and available resources for best outcomes.

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-208 - Use tourniquets to prevent blood loss from wounds
T-I+ Skill

Use tourniquets to temporarily prevent bleeding from all the wounds on a limb, when individually bandaging the wounds would result in unacceptable blood loss.

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-202 - Prioritise the most severe wounds
T-II+ Skill
  • Prioritise the treatment of wounds by evaluating the severity and rate of blood loss. 
  • Address the most severe wounds first to reduce overall blood loss, and then proceed to less critical wounds, employing appropriate bandaging techniques.
T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-207 - Use splints to treat broken limbs
T-I+ Skill

Use splints to temporarily treat broken limbs, until a personal aid kit can be used to restore full usage of the limb later.

FM/G88 - Dealing with obstructed or occluded airways

Guide
FM/BG-435 - Understanding airways
Guide

Airways can become blocked when a casualty is unconscious, when rendering first aid the airway should be checked to see if it is blocked or occluded if this is not treated, then it will result in death of the casualty.

Airways can be cleared by turning or hyperextending the head or by using other advanced medical equipment. Once clear, a patient can be placed in the recovery position.

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-163 - Assess the airway
T-I+ Skill

Assess the airway with “check airways” and categorize as one of the following states:

  • Clear
  • Occluded
  • Obstructed
The location of the

Above: The location of the "Check Airway" action and the result as seen in the activity log

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-263 - Turn the head to clear an occluded airway
T-I+ Skill

Turn the patient's head to clear the occluded airway of the patient if an Accuvac is not available.

Action as seen in the medical menu

Above: Action as seen in the medical menu

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-266 - Hyperextend the head to clear an obstructed airway
T-I+ Skill

Hyperextend the patient's head to clear the obstructed airway of the patient, and stay within 2m of the patient during the process.

Action as seen in the medical menu

Above: Action as seen in the medical menu

T-II+ Skill
FM/BS-261 - Put the patient in the recovery position to keep the airway clear
T-II+ Skill

Place the patient into a recovery position to keep the airway clear, if they:

  • are stable
  • do not need to be moved

FM/G89 - Dealing with pain

Guide
FM/BG-212 - Understanding pain
Guide

Pain is typically caused by wounds and the prolonged use of tourniquets. Increased pain can effect weapon sway, stamina, vision and cause audible moaning. Combat wound medication pills can be used to suppress pain for first aid, however more advanced suppression is possible using morphine or fentanyl.

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-209 - Use Combat wound medication pill to manage pain
T-I+ Skill
  • Administer or take combat wound medication pills to decrease pain by about 20%
  • Limit frequency of consumption to no more than 6 pills every 6 minutes to avoid overdosing
  • Be aware of side effects:
    • a slight increase in heart rate
    • a decrease in blood pressure

FM/G90 - Checking pulse and performing CPR

Guide
FM/BG-446 - Understanding heart rate
Guide

You can check the pulse of any non-tourniqueted bodypart and the result returned will be descriptive for non-medical personnel or an accurate value for medical personnel, the possible results are:

  • No heart rate (0)
  • Low heart rate (1-60)
  • Normal heart rate (60-100)
  • High heart rate (100+)

Some drugs will influence heart rate.

T-I+ Skill
FM/BS-224 - Use CPR to restore a normal heart rate when a patient has no heart rate
T-I+ Skill

After identifying a patient with no heart rate

  1. Perform CPR for at least 30 seconds
  2. Check pulse
  3. If no heart rate, repeat

Checking a patient's pulse whilst someone else is performing CPR or checking pulse on a limb with a tourniquet placed will provide an erroneous reading. 

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