Light Vehicle Section Commander Handbook

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The FM outlines our core skills, policies and guides to ensure every member stands ready for the mission ahead.

Your role access is determined by your skills, experience with those skills, and the specific roles that utilize them. With over 100 roles in UNITAF, creating detailed skill breakdowns for every role is a substantial undertaking that cannot be completed overnight. 

Estimated Role Cards

To ensure the entire unit can transition to the new system immediately, some roles are tagged as **"Estimated"**. These roles use a transitional approach:

• Temporary skill blocks simulate role-specific experience
• Estimated access levels are calculated based on these placeholder blocks
• Similar to LTS functionality but with improved accuracy and fewer limitations

Current State: Estimated roles provide functional access levels that closely mirror the previous LTS system while addressing many of its shortcomings. As development progresses, estimated role cards will be upgraded to the full FTS3 standard with detailed, role-specific skill requirements.

Important Note: When roles transition from "Estimated" to "Verified" status, your access level may change (either increase or decrease) as the requirements become more precise and role-specific.

This approach allows UNITAF to:

• Maintain operations during the transition period
• Provide immediate access to the improved FTS3 system
• Ensure continuity while detailed role cards are developed
• Gradually improve role accuracy over time

The estimated system serves as a bridge, ensuring no disruption to unit operations while we build toward the comprehensive FTS3 vision.

This is a temporary skill block, the skill block is being used to accumulate SP for time spent in Cavalry roles until it's role card is completed.

Your role access is determined by your skills, experience with those skills, and the specific roles that utilize them. With over 100 roles in UNITAF, creating detailed skill breakdowns for every role is a substantial undertaking that cannot be completed overnight. 

Estimated Role Cards

To ensure the entire unit can transition to the new system immediately, some roles are tagged as **"Estimated"**. These roles use a transitional approach:

• Temporary skill blocks simulate role-specific experience
• Estimated access levels are calculated based on these placeholder blocks
• Similar to LTS functionality but with improved accuracy and fewer limitations

Current State: Estimated roles provide functional access levels that closely mirror the previous LTS system while addressing many of its shortcomings. As development progresses, estimated role cards will be upgraded to the full FTS3 standard with detailed, role-specific skill requirements.

Important Note: When roles transition from "Estimated" to "Verified" status, your access level may change (either increase or decrease) as the requirements become more precise and role-specific.

This approach allows UNITAF to:

• Maintain operations during the transition period
• Provide immediate access to the improved FTS3 system
• Ensure continuity while detailed role cards are developed
• Gradually improve role accuracy over time

The estimated system serves as a bridge, ensuring no disruption to unit operations while we build toward the comprehensive FTS3 vision.

This is a temporary skill block, the skill block is being used to accumulate SP for time spent in Combat Leadership roles until it's role card is completed.

This is a temporary skill block, the skill block is being used to accumulate SP for time spent as Junior Team Leader until it's role card is completed.

This is a temporary skill block, the skill block is being used to accumulate SP for time spent as Fireteam Leader until it's role card is completed.

This is a temporary skill block, the skill block is being used to accumulate SP for time spent as Squad Leader until it's role card is completed.

This is a temporary skill block, the skill block is being used to accumulate SP for time spent as Squad Commander until it's role card is completed.

• Locate concealed areas hidden from enemy observation (dead ground).
• Identify optimal observation points for overwatch and surveillance.
• Evaluate exposure risks and blind spots on terrain. 

Perform LOS checks to determine visibility between observer and target.

1. Identify observer and target positions.
2. Compare elevations via contour lines or shading.
3. Assess terrain or structures blocking visibility.
4. Determine visible portion of the target area.
5. Annotate arcs, dead ground, and blocked areas on the map. 

• Detect rivers, cliffs, fences, walls, and urban structures.
• Assess obstacle impact on infantry, vehicles, and logistics movement.

Understanding terrain is essential for tactical movement. Terrain influences movement, observation, cover, and concealment.

• High ground provides superior observation and firing positions; ideal for overwatch, observation posts (OPs), and fire support.
• Low ground offers concealment but limits visibility and increases risk from enfilade fire.
• Ridges and hills offer a balance of cover and visibility; reverse slopes protect from direct fire.
• Valleys and depressions allow concealed movement but increase ambush risk; difficult to observe externally.
• Water features may restrict movement; bridges and fords become critical control points.
• Forests and woodblocks provide concealment and cover; facilitate stealth movement.
• Open terrain increases exposure but allows rapid movement if supported by fire or smoke. 

• Choose routes providing cover and concealment.
• Avoid known or suspected danger areas and obstacles.
• Consider terrain slope, vegetation, and obstacles on movement speed and safety. 

• Identify hills, valleys, ridgelines, depressions, rivers, and forests.
• Assess their impact on observation, cover, and movement.
• Distinguish natural obstacles from man-made features. 

Measure straight-line distance using the map scale and convert it with grid tools.

• Use ~10 km/h as baseline  speed on flat, open terrain.
• Adjust for terrain:
  •  Roads / open ground: maintain ~10 km/h.
  •  Hills, forests, etc reduce speed by: -30–50% speed.
• Add time for obstacles (fences, rivers, buildings) requiring detours or crossings.
• Adjust for unit load and type, as weight and role affect movement speed.
• Compute travel time: distance ÷ adjusted speed.

POIs are reference markers essential for navigation, observation, and reporting. Accurate recording using grid references is critical.

• Tactical POIs: bunkers, trenches, OPs, strongpoints, checkpoints.
• Strategic POIs: objectives, headquarters (HQs), communications relays, logistics hubs.
• Natural POIs: distinctive landmarks aiding navigation (e.g., lone tree, unique rock).
• Civilian POIs: villages, compounds, areas with civilian activity. 

• Interpret tactical, strategic, natural, and civilian POI markings by referring to the OPORD.
• Correlate POIs with current mission objectives. 

• Identify unit size, type, and function from symbols.
• Distinguish friendly, enemy, neutral, and unknown forces by colour.
• Understand status indicators such as readiness or engagement. 

• Select appropriate symbols for unit type and size.
• Use correct colour coding for affiliation.
• Place symbols in correct positions and maintain clarity on overlays and briefs. 

Control measures are tools used to organize, coordinate, and manage forces during an operation.

They help commanders and units:

• Maintain alignment and spacing
• Synchronize movement, fires, and support
• Define boundaries, objectives, and responsibilities
• Prevent fratricide or confusion

What a Sector Is

A sector is a designated area of responsibility within a town or urban objective, assigned to a squad or team for clearance.

Sectors help:

• Divide complex urban areas into manageable portions
• Maintain control and accountability
• Coordinate movement, fires, and support

Sectors should be sensible, clear, and easy to reference.

Best Practices

• Keep Sectors Manageable
  • Each sector should be sized so the assigned team can clear it efficiently without overextension.
  • Avoid overly large or irregular sectors that complicate coordination.
• Use a Simple Naming System
  • Standardize names using a grid-like system: A1, A2, B1, B2, etc.
  • Rows and columns help adjacent units easily identify boundaries.
  • Avoid complicated or inconsistent names.
• Align Sectors with Terrain
  • Use streets, canals, ridgelines, or major buildings to define borders.
  • Physical features make sectors easier to recognize during movement and coordination.
• Assign Responsibility Clearly
  • Each sector must have an assigned element responsible for clearing and reporting progress.
  • Ensure overlapping coverage at boundaries is minimized to prevent gaps or duplication.
• Coordinate Adjacent Sectors
  • Establish coordination points at intersections or key terrain features.
  • Adjacent teams should maintain visual or radio contact when possible.

Communication

Report progress by sector:

• “1-1 cleared Sector A2.”
• “Team Bravo securing Sector B1.”

Use sector names for directing support, fires, or follow-on movement.

Above: Example sectors for a town objective

What an Objective Box Is

An Objective Box (OB) is a clearly defined area representing the full extent of an objective, such as an entire town, village, or urban complex.

• It defines the boundaries of the objective.
• It ensures all units understand the area requiring clearance.
• Within the OB, the area can be subdivided into smaller sectors for individual squads or teams.

Best Practices

• Anchor to Terrain
  • Use roads, rivers, canals, ridgelines, or urban landmarks to mark the OB’s corners.
  • Clearly recognizable features make coordination and orientation easier.
• Size Appropriately
  • Cover the entire objective to prevent missed areas.
  • Avoid making it so large that it becomes unmanageable for assigned forces.
• Subdivide into Sectors
  • As per FM/BG-1524 - Sectors
• Coordinate Support
  • Use the OB as a reference for fire support, CAS, and logistics.
  • Synchronized actions are easier when all elements reference the same boundaries.

Communication

Reference the OB in orders and reports:

• “1st Platoon clearing Objective Box Alpha, Sector A2.”
• “All elements secure Objective Box Bravo as per orders.”

Above: Example objective box for a town objective

What a Line of Departure Is

• A Line of Departure (LoD) is the designated line where an assault or advance begins.
• It signals the transition from preparation or assembly to movement or attack.

The LoD is a control measure, not an objective. Crossing it initiates the operation.

When to Use

Most effective in:

• Deliberate assaults
• Platoon- or company-level attacks
• Coordinated multi-element movements

Generally unnecessary for small patrols or spontaneous actions.

Best Practices

• Anchor to recognizable terrain (road, ridgeline, tree line, or urban feature).
• Clearly define who crosses first and in what order.
• Ensure all support (fires, logistics, follow-on elements) is prepared before crossing.
• Tie crossing to a trigger (e.g., H-Hour or command order).

Communication

Keep reports concise:

• “1-1 crossing LoD.”
• “All elements set on LoD.”

Above: Example Line of departure location.

Definitions

• RV (Rendezvous):
  • A planned link-up point where elements meet during movement or prior to execution.
• ERV (Emergency Rendezvous):
  • A pre-designated rally point used if elements become separated, break contact, or lose communication.
• FRV (Final Rendezvous):
  • The last designated assembly point immediately prior to initiating an attack. It is used to consolidate all assault elements, confirm final readiness, and complete last-minute coordination before crossing the line of departure or beginning the final assault phase.

When to Use

• RVs can be used in all operations.
• ERVs are used when elements become separated or C2 is degraded.
• FRVs are used specifically during offensive operations as the final consolidation point before execution of an attack.

Best Practices

• Anchor to recognizable terrain.
  • Use intersections, buildings, terrain features, or distinct map references.
• Keep locations practical.
  • Avoid exposed or tactically unsound areas.
• Assign purpose clearly.
  • RV: Planned link-up during movement
  • ERV: Emergency regroup point
  • FRV: Final consolidation prior to assault
• Limit quantity.
  • Over-designating rendezvous points causes confusion.

Execution Considerations

• At an RV:
  • Confirm accountability
  • Conduct quick coordination
  • Adjust plan if required
  • Conduct medical and/or resupply
• At an ERV:
  • Establish security
  • Rebuild command and control
  • Await further direction
• At an FRV:
  • Conduct final accountability of assault elements
  • Confirm weapons, ammunition, and readiness status
  • Rehearse or confirm assault plan and timing
  • Synchronise final fire support or enabling assets
  • Issue final go/no-go confirmation before execution

Communication

Use concise reporting:

• “1-1 set at RV.”
• “All elements at FRV.”
• “Breaking contact to ERV.”

Above: Example RVs for town objective.

What a Phase Line Is

A Phase Line (PL) (sometimes known as Report Line) is a named control measure drawn across the area of operations to assist with coordination and synchronization.

PLs are used to regulate:

• Tempo of maneuver
• Fire support shift/lift
• Movement of follow-on elements
• Engagement or fallback triggers

A Phase Line is not an objective or a mandatory halt line unless specifically stated.

Planning test:
If crossing the PL does not trigger an action or report, it likely does not need to exist.

When to Use Phase Lines

Most effective in deliberate, structured operations such as:

• Platoon- or company-level assaults
• Mechanized or multi-element manoeuvre
• Fire support integration
• Layered defensive plans

They are generally unnecessary for small, fluid, squad-only actions.

Best Practices

• Anchor to terrain: 
  • Use recognizable features (roads, ridgelines, rivers, major streets).
• Limit quantity:
  • Use only what is required to control tempo or fires.
  • Too many PLs create clutter and unnecessary reporting.
• Tie to action:
  • Crossing a PL should trigger something:
    • Shift/lift fires
    • Commit follow-on elements
    • Authorize engagement
    • Execute fallback
    • a halt to maintain cohesion with other elements
• Align to the axis of advance:
  • Draw PLs perpendicular to movement to clearly show progression.

Common Applications

• Offense:
  • Control tempo and fire shifts during assaults.
• Movement:
  • Define bounds during controlled advances.
• Fire Support:
  • Establish fire limits or lift points.
• Defence:
  • Set engagement triggers or fallback criteria.

Naming and Communication

Use one consistent naming convention (e.g., ALPHA / BRAVO / CHARLIE, GOLD / SILVER / BRONZE, 1 / 2 / 3).

Keep reports concise:

• “1-1 at PL ALPHA.”
• “2-1 crossing PL BRAVO.”
• “All elements set at PL CHARLIE.”

Above: Example phase lines for a town objective.

What Boundaries and Lanes Are

• Boundaries are control measures that separate adjacent units’ areas of responsibility during movement or assault.
• Lanes are assigned corridors within which a unit advances or moves.

They are used to:

• Prevent friendly collisions or overlapping fields of fire
• Maintain alignment and direction of advance
• Organize multiple elements moving along the same axis

Boundaries define limits laterally, while lanes define the path forward.

Best Practices

• Anchor to Terrain
  • Use streets, ridgelines, rivers, or other clear features to define lateral limits.
  • Lanes should follow easily navigable routes (roads, alleys, or trails).
• Keep Dimensions Manageable
  • Boundaries: wide enough for safety but narrow enough to prevent drift.
  • Lanes: allow movement without congestion, obstacles, or crossfire.
• Assign Responsibility
  • Each element knows which lane or side of the boundary they occupy.
  • Overlaps only at designated coordination points.
• Coordinate Fires and Movement
  • Use boundaries to prevent friendly fire.
  • Ensure support elements respect the lateral limits.

Naming and Communication

Name boundaries and lanes clearly (e.g., Lane 1, Lane 2; Boundary RED, Boundary BLUE).

Report positions and movements using the assigned lane/boundary:

• “1-1 advancing Lane 2.”
• “Squad Bravo holding Boundary RED.”

Above: Example attack lanes for a town objective.

What a Limit of Exploitation Is

A Limit of Exploitation (LoE) defines the maximum depth an attacking element may advance.

It is used to prevent:

• Overextension
• Loss of mutual support
• Collision with adjacent units
• Advancing beyond sustainment

An LoE is a control boundary, not an objective.

When to Use

Most effective in:

• Deliberate assaults
• Mechanized breakthroughs
• Multi-element attacks
• Operations with adjacent units

Generally unnecessary for small, short-duration missions.

Best Practices

• Anchor to clear terrain when possible (road, river, ridgeline).
• State what happens at the LoE (halt, hold, or await orders).
• Require authorization before advancing beyond it.

The LoE should control depth and maintain cohesion without slowing momentum.

Communication

Keep reporting simple:

• “1-1 at LoE.”
• “Objective secure, holding at LoE.”

Movement beyond the LoE should be deliberate and directed.

Above: Example Limit of Exploitation for a town objective.

• Identify phase lines, boundaries, sectors, and objective boxes on mission maps.
• Plan fire team or squad movement to remain within assigned sectors, lanes, and limits of exploitation.
• Deconflict actions to prevent overlap, friendly collisions, or breaches of assigned boundaries.
• Report positions and status at designated rendezvous points (RV, FRV, ERV) or sector boundaries.

Every infantryman operates within a buddy team, ensuring that everyone always has someone to rely on in combat. This approach provides mutual protection and improves combat effectiveness. Standardised in the platoon, buddy teams can be adjusted by fireteam leads based on the situation. The specific composition is indicated on the ORBAT.

Responsibilities

• Always stay close to your buddy, within verbal range (shouting/talking distance) at all times.
• Keep your buddy informed of your movements and actions to maintain situational awareness.
• Cover your buddy’s movements, opposing sectors, and vulnerable moments.
• If your buddy goes down, quickly assess the situation, provide cover, and extract them to safety.
• Maintain mutual accountability, losing track of your buddy is as much your responsibility as theirs.

Each Fireteam consists of four to six players: a leader and 3 to 5 subordinates. New players will end up acting as a rifleman in one of the Fireteams. Riflemen will be under the charge of a more experienced player, acting as the Fireteam Leader (FTL). They in turn, will be under the command of a Squad Leader who leads the two Fireteams that make up each squad. Likewise, the Squad Leader will be under the command of the Platoon Commander, who commands the two or three squads that form the platoon. They are led by the Company Commander, who directs the movements of the platoons in their Company.

Above: A typical fireteam in the field

A company is composed of two to three platoons and a Company Command Element, forming the largest cohesive player-controlled formation. The company executes the overall mission assigned by higher command, coordinating all subordinate platoons and attached support assets such as logistics, air, and artillery. The Company Commander (CoyCo) provides strategic direction and overall control.

Responsibilities

• Coordinate the movement and actions of all platoons to ensure unity of effort.
• Manage and allocate supporting assets in line with mission priorities.
• Maintain situational awareness of friendly platoon positions, combat effectiveness, and logistics status.
• Communicate regularly with higher command, relaying progress and requesting support as required.
• Ensure platoon commanders understand the plan’s purpose as well as its details, enabling initiative under changing conditions.
• Maintain flexibility to reinforce, recover casualties, or shift the main effort as the battle evolves.
• Conduct post-mission evaluation to identify lessons learned and improve future performance.

A standard platoon is composed of three rifle squads and a four-man Command Element, known as Platoon Headquarters (PltHQ). The PltHQ includes the Platoon Commander (PltCo), Platoon Sergeant (PltSgt), Platoon Medic (PltMed), and a Rifleman who provides security for the element.

Platoons are the core tactical formation on the battlefield, linking company-level direction to squad-level execution. The Platoon Commander leads the platoon in accordance with the Company Commander’s intent, ensuring that all subordinate squads act in concert toward a unified mission objective.

Responsibilities

• Brief squad leaders on the Commander’s intent and ensure full understanding of the mission and desired end state.
• Maintain control and coordination of all attached squads and supporting elements.
• Position command and support elements effectively to maintain visibility and control of the battle.
• Keep squads within mutually supporting distance, avoiding fragmentation of combat power.
• Delegate tasks and share workload with the Platoon Sergeant.
• Avoid micromanagement; empower Squad Leaders to adapt the fight as required.
• Gather and maintain awareness of platoon ACE (Ammo, Casualties, Equipment) status and report to company command as needed.
• Reorganise or reinforce squads when casualties or mission conditions require.

A rifle squad is a formidable unit built around flexibility and firepower. Each squad typically consists of two Fireteams and a Squad Leader element, usually totalling 14 personnel. The Squad Leader commands two Fireteam Leaders and their teams, supported by a Squad Medic who provides immediate medical care and acts as the second member of the squad lead element.

Squads form the primary fighting unit of a platoon. They execute the Platoon Commander’s intent through aggressive manoeuvre, disciplined communication, and mutual support between Fireteams.

Responsibilities

• Execute the Platoon Commander’s intent through coordinated Fireteam manoeuvre and fire.
• Maintain constant situational awareness of friendly and enemy positions.
• Keep both Fireteams within mutual support range at all times.
• Communicate regularly with other squad leaders and up to the platoon command.
• Ensure all squad members understand the current plan, ROE, and formations.
• Manage casualties within the squad and coordinate with the Platoon Medic when required.
• Reorganise and redistribute personnel or equipment as casualties occur.
• Avoid changing the squad’s structure without approval from the field leader.

During any operation that requires it, you'll be provided with an AN/PRC-152. It is the short range radio used by all elements. The main frequency is the channel (C1, C2,…) that is currently selected on the radio.

To set up your main frequency:

1. Check with your leader or in the ORBAT what frequency you should be on
2. Hover with your mouse on your current frequency (2) and type the desired frequency; eg. 271
3. Click the ENT (4) button to enter (save) the frequency
4. Check in with your team to see if the radio is working properly

Using the AN/PRC-152 you can also set up an additional frequency to communicate with other elements that aren't your own. The additional frequency is set manually and will show as “A#” in place of the channel name e.g. If channel 2 is selected as the alternate frequency, it will become A2.

To set up an additional frequency:

1. Click the + button (5) to select the desired channel.
2. Click the left arrow button (8) to set an additional channel. 
   1. At this point you should read A# (# being the channel number) instead of C#, next to the frequency number.
3. Type the wanted frequency you want to use as additional; eg. 270
4. Click the ENT (4) button to enter the frequency
5. Click the - button (6) to return to your main frequency

If you want to dictate which ear you want the audio for your main and alternate channels to come out from, select the frequency you want to adjust and click the 0(9) button to modify the stereo settings. On the bottom right of the screen, you'll see an indicator that says either "left", "right" or "left and right". Ensure you do this for both your main and alternate channels on any radios you're using.

Now you should be able to hear both frequencies in different ears.

Above: The BLUFOR issued AN/PRC-152 and its buttons explained.

A radio is a specialized communication device designed for use by armed forces to facilitate secure and reliable communication on the battlefield and during military operations.

The primary purpose of a radio is to enable effective coordination and command among elements, allowing for the swift transmission of orders, intelligence, and situational updates. This real-time communication capability is crucial for coordinating maneuvers, calling for support, reporting enemy positions, and ensuring overall operational efficiency and safety of personnel during operations.

• Rhythm: Use short sentences divided into sensible phrases which maintain a natural rhythm, they should not be spoken word by word.
• Speed: Speak slightly slower than normal conversation. Speed is easily adjusted by increasing or decreasing the length of pauses between phrases, as opposed to altering the length of pauses between words as this will create an unnatural, halted style of speech which is difficult to understand.
• Volume: Volume should be as for normal conversation. There is no need to shout, the sensitivity of the microphone will clearly communicate your voice, even in a noisy environment.
• Pitch: The voice should be the natural pitch of your voice to maintain clarity.

When pronouncing individual letters over a radio channel, replace the letter with the corresponding word from the following table:

When pronouncing individual numerals over a radio channel, pronounce the numeral according to the following table:

A callsign is the identifier that is used to address another unit over radio. Every unit down to the fireteam level has a unique callsign to identify it.

Some individuals also have their own callsigns. These are generally for people with leadership or specialised roles, like the platoon commander, platoon seargeant or forward air controller.

Deployment ORBATs in UNITAF have callsigns which are assigned by the deployments Field Leader, callsigns come from a pre-approved callsign list. Some callsigns are from the phonetic alphabet, ALPHA, BRAVO CHARLIE etc. However many other callsigns exist, and can carry themes such as birds, animals and chess pieces. Callsigns are usually words which are short, easy to say, remember and to understand.

In UNITAF Callsigns are assigned to Platoons or to Companies. When a Platoon is assigned a callsign, all subordinate elements of the Platoon also adopt that callsign. A simple example of how this works is outlined below.

• Platoon HQ (ALPHA 9)
• Platoon Sergeant (ALPHA 8)
• Platoon RTO (ALPHA 7)
• Platoon Medic (ALPHA 6)
• 1st Squad (ALPHA 1-0)
  • 1st Squad 1st Fireteam (ALPHA 1-1)
  • 1st Squad 2nd Fireteam (ALPHA 1-2)
• 2nd Squad (ALPHA 2-0)
  • 2nd Squad 1st Fireteam (ALPHA 2-1)
  • 2nd Squad 2nd Fireteam (ALPHA 2-2) 
• 3rd Squad (ALPHA 3-0)
  • 3rd Squad 1st Fireteam (ALPHA 3-1)
  • 3rd Squad 2nd Fireteam (ALPHA 3-2)

When needing to speak to the leader of an element specifically, and not anyone else on net who may take transmissions for the callsign (platoon sergeant/radio operators etc.), append ACTUAL after the element's callsign.

ACTUAL is never combined with a personal callsign as defined in FM/BP-1137 - Personal callsigns

To keep radio communications brief, shorten callsigns whenever possible, according to the following rules:

• Drop the common section of the callsign of all stations on the net (ALPHA 1-1 ←→ ALPHA 1-2 becomes (1 ←→ 2)
• Drop the numerals when only a single station of that callsign is on the net (ALPHA 1 ←→ BRAVO 1 becomes ALPHA ←→ BRAVO)

When addressing a specific person in the HQ element, use their personal callsign. The assignment of HQ personal callsigns works in reverse from the number 9, where 9 is the commander of that callsign. Typically, the second-in-command will be 8, forward air controllers, observers or medics can be 7, 6 and so on.

• The personal callsign will be displayed on the ORBAT.
• Personal callsigns are never transferred to another person, even when said person is incapacitated.

When adressing all callsigns on a network, use ALL STATIONS instead of listing all callsigns separately.

A callsign is the identifier that is used to address another unit over radio. Every unit down to the fireteam level has a unique callsign to identify it.

Some individuals also have their own callsigns. These are generally for people with leadership or specialised roles, like the platoon commander, platoon seargeant or forward air controller.

Deployment ORBATs in UNITAF have callsigns which are assigned by the deployments Field Leader, callsigns come from a pre-approved callsign list. Some callsigns are from the phonetic alphabet, ALPHA, BRAVO CHARLIE etc. However many other callsigns exist, and can carry themes such as birds, animals and chess pieces. Callsigns are usually words which are short, easy to say, remember and to understand.

In UNITAF Callsigns are assigned to Platoons or to Companies. When a Platoon is assigned a callsign, all subordinate elements of the Platoon also adopt that callsign. A simple example of how this works is outlined below.

• Platoon HQ (ALPHA 9)
• Platoon Sergeant (ALPHA 8)
• Platoon RTO (ALPHA 7)
• Platoon Medic (ALPHA 6)
• 1st Squad (ALPHA 1-0)
  • 1st Squad 1st Fireteam (ALPHA 1-1)
  • 1st Squad 2nd Fireteam (ALPHA 1-2)
• 2nd Squad (ALPHA 2-0)
  • 2nd Squad 1st Fireteam (ALPHA 2-1)
  • 2nd Squad 2nd Fireteam (ALPHA 2-2) 
• 3rd Squad (ALPHA 3-0)
  • 3rd Squad 1st Fireteam (ALPHA 3-1)
  • 3rd Squad 2nd Fireteam (ALPHA 3-2)

When needing to speak to the leader of an element specifically, and not anyone else on net who may take transmissions for the callsign (platoon sergeant/radio operators etc.), append ACTUAL after the element's callsign.

ACTUAL is never combined with a personal callsign as defined in FM/BP-1137 - Personal callsigns

To keep radio communications brief, shorten callsigns whenever possible, according to the following rules:

• Drop the common section of the callsign of all stations on the net (ALPHA 1-1 ←→ ALPHA 1-2 becomes (1 ←→ 2)
• Drop the numerals when only a single station of that callsign is on the net (ALPHA 1 ←→ BRAVO 1 becomes ALPHA ←→ BRAVO)

When addressing a specific person in the HQ element, use their personal callsign. The assignment of HQ personal callsigns works in reverse from the number 9, where 9 is the commander of that callsign. Typically, the second-in-command will be 8, forward air controllers, observers or medics can be 7, 6 and so on.

• The personal callsign will be displayed on the ORBAT.
• Personal callsigns are never transferred to another person, even when said person is incapacitated.

When adressing all callsigns on a network, use ALL STATIONS instead of listing all callsigns separately.

A transactional radio network is a network based on a transaction: a back and forth set of messages between a defined set of participants. It is bases on the following principles:

1. Radio handshake: Every transaction (conversation) begins with a handshake that defines who will participate in the transaction. The handshake is initiated by the sending party and acknowledges by the receiving parties. This way, all parties are confident all other parties are ready to transmit and receive information. See FM/BS-822 - Initiate a conversation on a transactional network for how to perform the handshake. 
2. Convey meaning through standardised words: To maximise understanding and minimise mixups, standardised words are used to convey a defined meaning. These words are choses so they cannot easily be confused with other words, especially when interacting with non-native English users. 
3. Transaction end: Every transaction should be ended according to FM/BS-824 - End a conversation on a transactional network. This ensures everyone on the radio network is aware the transaction is over, and that another transaction may be started.

In transactional nets callsigns must first identify with one another and once ident has been completed, a series of tranmissions may take place, and then the transaction is ended with the proword "OUT". 

• When a transaction is taking place between two callsigns, only those callsigns can use the net, other callsigns on the net must remain silent until they hear "OUT" which indicates that the transaction is completed.
• UNITAF does not use the pro-word "OVER".
• If a callsign who is not part of the ongoing transaction has urgent information to send, they can use the proword "BREAK BREAK BREAK" to break into a transaction.
• Once a series of transmissions in a transaction are underway, IDENT does not need to happen for each message, just at the start and end of the transaction.

The below table shows the types of nets and their usage of IDENT and transactional communication procedures.

Join a transactional network by saying:

[your full callsign], checking into the net

or shortened as:

[your full callsign], checking in

When starting a conversation on a transactional network, state:

[reciever callsign(s)], 

(this is) [sender callsign], 

(priority)

The other party(ies) respond, in order of their callsign, with:

[sender callsign], 

(this is) [reciever callsign]

When ending a conversation on a transactional network, append OUT at the end of the transmission.

A transmission can only be ended by the party that has the initiative in the conversation.

A transactional radio network is a network based on a transaction: a back and forth set of messages between a defined set of participants. It is bases on the following principles:

1. Radio handshake: Every transaction (conversation) begins with a handshake that defines who will participate in the transaction. The handshake is initiated by the sending party and acknowledges by the receiving parties. This way, all parties are confident all other parties are ready to transmit and receive information. See FM/BS-822 - Initiate a conversation on a transactional network for how to perform the handshake. 
2. Convey meaning through standardised words: To maximise understanding and minimise mixups, standardised words are used to convey a defined meaning. These words are choses so they cannot easily be confused with other words, especially when interacting with non-native English users. 
3. Transaction end: Every transaction should be ended according to FM/BS-824 - End a conversation on a transactional network. This ensures everyone on the radio network is aware the transaction is over, and that another transaction may be started.

In transactional nets callsigns must first identify with one another and once ident has been completed, a series of tranmissions may take place, and then the transaction is ended with the proword "OUT". 

• When a transaction is taking place between two callsigns, only those callsigns can use the net, other callsigns on the net must remain silent until they hear "OUT" which indicates that the transaction is completed.
• UNITAF does not use the pro-word "OVER".
• If a callsign who is not part of the ongoing transaction has urgent information to send, they can use the proword "BREAK BREAK BREAK" to break into a transaction.
• Once a series of transmissions in a transaction are underway, IDENT does not need to happen for each message, just at the start and end of the transaction.

The below table shows the types of nets and their usage of IDENT and transactional communication procedures.

Join a transactional network by saying:

[your full callsign], checking into the net

or shortened as:

[your full callsign], checking in

When starting a conversation on a transactional network, state:

[reciever callsign(s)], 

(this is) [sender callsign], 

(priority)

The other party(ies) respond, in order of their callsign, with:

[sender callsign], 

(this is) [reciever callsign]

When ending a conversation on a transactional network, append OUT at the end of the transmission.

A transmission can only be ended by the party that has the initiative in the conversation.

When indicating your understading of a transmission use either of the following:

Never use these together, as WILCO implies ROGER.

When unable to respond to a transmission, use either of the following:

When indicating your understading of a transmission use either of the following:

Never use these together, as WILCO implies ROGER.

When unable to respond to a transmission, use either of the following:

Use BREAK to split long transmissions into multiple parts of roughly 5 seconds.

After transmitting BREAK, uncue the radio and pause for 2 seconds, before continuing.

If the readback was correct, transmit:

Correct

If the readback was inccorect, transmit:

Negative, I say again, [correct information]

After stating incorrect information state the following: 

correction, [corrected information]

After stating information that was correct at the time, but isn't anymore state the following: 

disregard ([stale information])

If a callsign is not answering you, try to reach them for a total of three times with several seconds passing in between. Each additional time they may add the information that they haven’t received anything, to make other stations aware of it.

If the suspected station is your superior you may assume that they may be incapacitated and/or killed and the next station in the Chain of Command needs to take command in their place.

Example

This example will cover a squad net on channel 250 consisting of Outlaw 1-0, 1-1, 1-2 and 1-3. 1-2 is trying to reach 1-0 without success: 

Trying to contact

1-2: Actual, this is 2.

1-0: (1-0 is not responding so after a couple of seconds 1-2 tries again)

1-2: Actual, this is 2, nothing heard.

1-0: (1-0 is not responding so after a couple of seconds 1-2 tries for the last time)

1-2: Actual, this is 2, nothing heard OUT.

1-0: (1-0 is not responding so 1-1 needs to take command)

 

Succession of command

1-2: 1, this is 2.

1-1: 2 this is 1.

1-2: You need to take command.

1-1: This is 1, taking command..

When asking another callsign to relay information, state:

relay to [final receiver callsign] [information to relay]

When relaying information from another callsign, state:

relay from [original sender callsign] [information to relay]

Use the following standardized words instead of other synonyms on a transactional network:

To interrupt an ongoing conversation, transmit after a transmission has finished, or after FM/BS-825 - Break up long transmissions on a transactional network: 

break break break, FM/BS-822 - Initiate a conversation on a transactional network

Only interrupt a conversation when the new conversation has a higher urgency than the interrupted one.

Use BREAK to split long transmissions into multiple parts of roughly 5 seconds.

After transmitting BREAK, uncue the radio and pause for 2 seconds, before continuing.

If the readback was correct, transmit:

Correct

If the readback was inccorect, transmit:

Negative, I say again, [correct information]

After stating incorrect information state the following: 

correction, [corrected information]

After stating information that was correct at the time, but isn't anymore state the following: 

disregard ([stale information])

If a callsign is not answering you, try to reach them for a total of three times with several seconds passing in between. Each additional time they may add the information that they haven’t received anything, to make other stations aware of it.

If the suspected station is your superior you may assume that they may be incapacitated and/or killed and the next station in the Chain of Command needs to take command in their place.

Example

This example will cover a squad net on channel 250 consisting of Outlaw 1-0, 1-1, 1-2 and 1-3. 1-2 is trying to reach 1-0 without success: 

Trying to contact

1-2: Actual, this is 2.

1-0: (1-0 is not responding so after a couple of seconds 1-2 tries again)

1-2: Actual, this is 2, nothing heard.

1-0: (1-0 is not responding so after a couple of seconds 1-2 tries for the last time)

1-2: Actual, this is 2, nothing heard OUT.

1-0: (1-0 is not responding so 1-1 needs to take command)

 

Succession of command

1-2: 1, this is 2.

1-1: 2 this is 1.

1-2: You need to take command.

1-1: This is 1, taking command..

When asking another callsign to relay information, state:

relay to [final receiver callsign] [information to relay]

When relaying information from another callsign, state:

relay from [original sender callsign] [information to relay]

Use the following standardized words instead of other synonyms on a transactional network:

To interrupt an ongoing conversation, transmit after a transmission has finished, or after FM/BS-825 - Break up long transmissions on a transactional network: 

break break break, FM/BS-822 - Initiate a conversation on a transactional network

Only interrupt a conversation when the new conversation has a higher urgency than the interrupted one.

• Maintain clear and consistent communication within the crew and with your higher element at all times.
• Program both radios: use the Short Range (SR) for internal crew comms and the Long Range (LR) for communication with your higher element.
• Keep the SR radio ready and correctly configured, so it can be used immediately when dismounted.
• When dismounted, use SR radios to stay in contact with the rest of the crew and higher elements.

Communicate “[part of the vehicle] DISABLED” to the other crewmembers. Example: “GUN DISABLED”

Most armoured vehicles are equipped with an intercom system that allows voice communication between all occupants by retransmitting speech through internal headsets.

• Most vehicles provide at least two intercom channels: Crew and Cargo.
• Some vehicles, especially older types or those without passenger space, may only have a single shared channel.
• When first entering a vehicle, the Cargo channel is selected by default.
• Passengers should remain on the Cargo channel unless instructed otherwise.
• Vehicle crew should switch to the Crew channel to prevent interference from passenger communications.

Formations are a set way of positioning members of an element during combat. These formations are used for several key reasons:

1. Command and control: They allow leaders to effectively manage and direct their units, ensuring clear communication and efficient execution of orders.
2. Mutual support and security: Soldiers in these formations can cover each other, provide overlapping fields of fire, and maintain situational awareness, enhancing their overall survivability and effectiveness.
3. Team cohesion: By having a standard for where everyone should be, it is easier to maintain cohesion as an element

The wedge is a versatile formation that is easy to establish and control. It allows for good all-around observation and security, and can be used in the majority of situations encountered. Fire can be placed in any direction in good quantity, and a shift in formation upon contact is easy to accomplish to suit where the contact came from.

If contacted from the front or rear, the wedge allows for easy transition to a line formation. If attacked from either side, one buddy team is able to return fire whilst the other maneuvers to support them.

The fireteam leader will usually take the forward-most position, with the first buddy team to their left, and the second buddy team to their right. The fireteam leader may adjust positions within the formation based on need, such as putting the automatic rifleman to the front and the medic to the rear, but should generally avoid splitting buddy teams between the two sides.

Strengths:

• Good all-around security
• Allows balanced volume of fire in all directions
• Good movement control, even with limited visibility or difficult terrain
• Easily transitions to other formations

Weaknesses:

• The balanced forward, rearward, and side firing angles are each limited compared to other formations
• May not be suitable for restrictive terrain

Above: A fireteam wedge, led by the fireteam leader

The line formation is well-suited for advancing towards a known or suspected threat with the maximum number of guns brought to bear, and excels at placing a heavy volume of fire to the formation's front.

Strengths:

• Allows largest possible volume of fire forward and rearward
• Good troop dispersion
• Large area coverage
• Easily transitions to base of fire, bounding overwatch, or flanking maneuvers

Weaknesses:

• Vulnerable to both sides
• Allows very limited volume of fire on both sides
• Difficult to maneuver and control movement
• Highly visible due to large area coverage
• Ill-suited for maintaining stealth

Above: A fireteam line

The fireteam column is the opposite of a fireteam line in that, instead of being lined up left-to-right, the fireteam is lined up front-to-back. In other words, a single column line. Each team member after the point man should walk the exact same path as the person in front of them, to minimize risk of exposure to environmental hazards (such as mines or IEDs), and to keep the team together in low-visibility environments and on difficult terrain. When available, a role with a mine detector, such as an EOD Specialist or combat engineer, should take point if such hazards are known or suspected in the area.

A column must be used with caution, as only the point man can immediately react to any contact from the front, while the rest of the team must maneuver to support. If the team is in a column because the area is dangerous, those maneuvers are especially risky.

Strengths:

• Easiest formation to control, especially on difficult or restrictive terrain
• Allows largest possible volume of fire on both sides
• Easy to maintain at higher movement speeds
• Ideal for maintaining stealth

Weaknesses:

• Vulnerable to the front and rear
• Allows very limited volume of fire forward
• Often has poor dispersion of troops, especially with limited visibility
• Difficult to transition to base of fire, bounding overwatch, or flanking maneuvers

Above: A fireteam column, led by the fireteam leader

The fireteam staggered column sees the fireteam split into two adjacent column formations, staggered so that each member of each column is diagonal from those in the adjacent column. They should never be directly next to each other, as this prevents one team member from being able to effectively return fire when contacted from the side. Additionally, being staggered improves the spacing between fireteam members, reducing risk from explosives and ambushes.

The staggered column is usually utilized when following a road, and is useful for scouting ahead of friendly vehicles and sweeping the road for hazards. It also allows the team to maintain improved security over a single column, while avoiding walking on the center of the road. The team can easily condense into a single column on either side of the road at any time.

The staggered column does make it more difficult to effectively return fire to the front without forming a wedge, though is still better than a single column formation.

Buddy teams should create the front and rear of the formation, not the left and right columns. When the team takes contact from front or rear, this allows one buddy team to return fire whilst the other maneuvers to support them. When taking contact from the sides, it allows for the quick formation of a fireteam line, with one buddy team on the left and right.

Strengths:

• Good dispersion of troops
• Allows large volume of fire on both sides
• Better forward and rearward sectors of fire than a column
• Good maneuverability and movement control

Weaknesses:

• Fairly vulnerable to the front and rear
• Allows limited volume of fire forward and rearward
• Difficult to transition into base of fire, bounding overwatch, or flanking maneuvers

Above: A fireteam staggered column, led by the fireteam leader

Echelon left/right comprises the fireteam creating a single diagonal line going rearwards from the given side of the point man, which is usually the fireteam leader. Echelon left means the fireteam will be on the point man’s left, while echelon right means the fireteam will be on the point man’s right.

Used when the fireteam has another element covering the echelon’s weak side (the left side of an echelon right, and vice versa). Most commonly used to create a squad wedge formation, which is two fireteam echelon formations connecting to form a protective wedge for the squad leader element.

Pros:

• Allows excellent volume of fire on the specified side
• Allows good volume of fire forward and rearward
• Easily transitions to other formations

Cons:

• Vulnerable to the opposite side without an adjacent element
• Somewhat difficult to maneuver
• Not suitable for restrictive terrain

Above: An echelon left (top) and an echelon right (bottom), each led by the fireteam leader

The squad column comprises a fireteam wedge at the front, the other fireteam wedge at the rear, and the squad Leader element in the middle. The most common squad formation, it allows contact from either side to be engaged by both fireteams, while contact from the front or rear allows one fireteam to establish a base of fire whilst the other maneuvers to support.

Pros:

• Good all-around security
• Allows large volume of fire to the sides
• Good movement control with limited visibility or difficult terrain
• Easily transitions to base of fire, bounding overwatch, or flanking maneuvers

Cons:

• Allows limited volume of fire forward and rearward
• May not be suitable for restrictive terrain

Above: A squad column, led by the first fireteam leader

The squad wedge is created by having two fireteams form an echelon left and an echelon right, and connecting at their point men, usually with the first fireteam leader or taking point. In other words, wherein the fireteam wedge has a buddy team on either side, the squad wedge has a Fireteam on either side. The squad leader element is positioned behind the front of the wedge, but still within the formation, for optimal security and control over the formation.

Just like the fireteam wedge, if contacted from the front or rear, the wedge allows for easy transition to a line formation. If attacked from either side, one fireteam is able to return fire whilst the other maneuvers to support them.

Pros:

• Well-balanced for contact from the front, rear, and both sides
• Balanced volume of fire forward, rearward, and to both sides
• Good movement control, even with limited visibility or difficult terrain
• Large area coverage
• Easily transitions to other formations

Cons:

• The balanced forward, rearward, and side firing angles are each limited compared to other formations
• Highly visible due to large area coverage
• May not be suitable for restrictive terrain

Above: A squad wedge, led by the first fireteam leader

The squad file comprises the whole squad as one single column line, with one Fireteam at the front, the squad leader element in the middle, and the other Fireteam at the rear.

Just like the fireteam column, the squad file is usually used when there is a risk of mines/IEDs or other UXOs, to minimize risk of detonation by ensuring each person steps exactly where the point man did. It can also be used to maintain stealth, as the point man only needs to find a single path for the entire squad, and can easily stop the formation to avoid detection.

Strengths:

• Easiest formation to control, especially on difficult or restrictive terrain
• Allows largest possible volume of fire on both sides
• Easy to maintain at higher movement speeds
• Ideal for maintaining stealth

Weaknesses:

• Vulnerable to the front and rear
• Allows very limited volume of fire forward
• Poor dispersion of troops, especially with limited visibility
• Difficult to transition into base of fire, bounding overwatch, or flanking maneuvers

Above: A squad file, led by the first fireteam leader

The squad staggered column is created by having one fireteam in a staggered column at the front, the squad leader element in the middle, and the other fireteam in a staggered column at the rear. The formation can be done as either a single, unbroken staggered column, or with additional spacing between each element’s staggered column..

Similar to the fireteam staggered column, it is usually utilized when following a road, and is useful for scouting ahead of friendly vehicles and sweeping the road for hazards. It also allows the squad to maintain improved security while avoiding walking on the center of the road.

Strengths:

• Good dispersion of troops
• Allows large volume of fire on both sides
• Better forward and rearward security than a file
• Good maneuverability and movement control

Weaknesses:

• Vulnerable to the front and rear
• Allows limited volume of fire forward and rearward
• Difficult to transition into base of fire, bounding overwatch, or flanking maneuvers

Above: A squad staggered column, led by the first fireteam leader

Maintain the correct position in the formation set by the element leader.

Maintain the correct position in the mounted formation set by the element commander.

The Section File is used for movement through restricted terrain or when forming a convoy.All vehicles follow the same path, typically along a road or marked route. As only the lead vehicle can observe and engage directly forward, this formation should only be used when contact is unlikely.

The Section Wedge is suited for movement in areas where contact is expected but the enemy's location is unknown. One or two vehicles lead, with the remaining vehicles forming echelons on both sides of the lead element to provide wide observation and fire coverage.

The Section Column is suited for movement through safe areas where immediate contact is not expected. Vehicles move in pairs, with each pair abreast and following the one in front.

The Section Line formation is used when providing fire support or advancing toward a known enemy position. All vehicles are positioned abreast, allowing maximum forward firepower and observation coverage. Distances between vehicles are dictated by the tactical situation.

Vehicle formations follow the same foundational principles as infantry formations but are adapted for vehicle size, protection, and capabilities.

• Spacing: Greater distance is maintained between vehicles to reduce the risk from explosions and accommodate vehicle size.
• Observation: Crews benefit from enhanced optics and multiple observers, allowing for wider spacing and improved situational awareness.
• Static posture: Unlike infantry formations, vehicle formations are maintained even when static, with emphasis on cover and turret-down positioning rather than strict alignment.

The Vehicle with Flanking Infantry formation provides mutual protection and situational awareness.

Infantry elements move slightly ahead on both sides of the vehicle, staying roughly level with the vehicle's centre.

This arrangement enhances security against close threats while allowing the vehicle to support both flanks with its firepower.

The Vehicle Following Infantry formation is used when vehicles provide close support from behind advancing infantry.

Vehicles follow at a 40–60 m distance, maintaining pace with the infantry while preserving freedom of movement and minimizing risk of interference or fratricide. This formation has an increased risk of fratricide by overpressure, see FM/BG-1332 - Vehicles in an urban environment.

This formation allows vehicles to deliver responsive fire support without restricting infantry manoeuvre.

The Vehicle Leading Infantry formation is used when the vehicle provides frontal protection for advancing infantry.

The vehicle moves ahead of the infantry, using its armour and weapons to suppress or draw enemy fire.

This is most effective when advancing across open terrain or toward a known threat, allowing infantry to follow under cover.

Maintain the correct position in the combined arms formation set by the element commander.

Cover and concealment both reduce risk to friendly forces, but they protect against different threats and are not interchangeable.

Cover protects personnel from enemy fire and blast effects. It physically stops or degrades projectiles and fragments. Effective cover reduces the likelihood of injury or death when under fire but may still allow the enemy to observe the position.

Concealment protects personnel from enemy observation and detection. It hides movement and positions but does not stop bullets or blast effects. Concealment reduces the chance of being engaged but provides little protection once contact occurs.

Key Distinctions

• Protection Type: Cover provides physical protection; concealment provides visual protection.
• Effect Under Fire: Cover remains effective once engaged; concealment does not.
• Visibility: Cover may be visible to the enemy; concealment may hide a position entirely.
• Use in Manoeuvre: Concealment is prioritised to avoid contact; cover is prioritised once contact is made.

Effective use of terrain balances both. Concealment is used to prevent detection, while cover is used to survive engagement when detection occurs.

Use vegetation and elevation differences to conceal your element. Also consider concealment from flying platforms, which is something a tree canopy can provide.

Use terrain to give the element the upper hand in an engagement:

• Use terrain features as cover
• Use terrain as funnels to lay ambushes
• Use elevation difference to shoot down on the enemy

Operating in stealth requires practice however there are some fundamentals can that be followed:

Movement Discipline

• Move slowly in hostile areas to reduce noise and visibility.
• Stay low in open terrain and use terrain features for concealment.
• Limit unnecessary movement near enemy positions.

Visual & Thermal Camouflage

• Wear appropriate camo based on the environment (woodland, urban, desert).
• Use natural shadows, foliage, and structures to remain hidden.
• Be aware that some enemies may have thermal optics or night sights.

Noise & Light Discipline

• Keep flashlights, lasers, and unnecessary lights off.
• If using voice chat, whisper mode can help to prevent noise detection.
• Avoid firing weapons unless absolutely necessary.

Different environments can introduce unique challenges to reconnaissance and stealth. Understanding how to adapt ensures better survival and intelligence gathering:

Dense Forest & Jungle Environments

• Use slow, deliberate movement to avoid detection and minimize noise. The enemy may be close before either side notices.
• Stick to natural cover like bushes and trees instead of roads or paths.
• Engage only when necessary. visibility is low, and firefights can quickly become chaotic.

Arctic Conditions

• Visibility is often high, so use terrain dips, tree lines, and elevation changes for cover.
• Be aware of long-range optics and thermal imaging, which are more effective in open snow environments.

Desert & Sparse Terrain

• Stay low and avoid silhouetting against ridgelines.
• Movement is often visible from long distances, move during low light hours if possible.

Urban

• Use building interiors, rooftops, and alleyways for movement and observation.
• Avoid crossing large open spaces unless necessary, stick to walls and cover.
• Be mindful of elevated enemy positions and sniper threats. 

Apply sufficient fire to reduce the enemy’s ability to return effective fire.

• Direct fire toward known or suspected enemy positions to suppress them.
• Increase volume, accuracy, or tempo of fire until enemy fire becomes ineffective or sporadic.
• Use suppressive fire as the primary method; at closer ranges or against small elements, deliberate fire may be sufficient.
• Maintain fire until friendly manoeuvre or disengagement is achieved.

Fire superiority enables freedom of movement and reduces friendly casualties.

Engage the enemy while repositioning to prevent being fixed in place.

• Apply effective fire to suppress or fix the enemy.
• Reposition elements after limited engagement time from the same position.
• Use movement to deny the enemy predictable targeting and control.
• Exploit new positions to gain improved firing angles and observation.
• Maintain coordination so fire and movement remain mutually supporting.

Prolonged firing from a single position increases vulnerability. Continuous manoeuvre preserves initiative and survivability.

Prevent the enemy from manoeuvring or disengaging.

• Apply sufficient fire to force the enemy to remain in position.
• Maintain continuous pressure to limit enemy movement and initiative.
• Avoid over‑committing forces intended for manoeuvre.
• Adjust fire to maintain suppression without unnecessary exposure.

Enemy positions should not be used as regroup or rally points after contact or assault. Once occupied, these locations are likely known or pre-planned for indirect fires, air attack, or follow-on engagement.

Even if cleared or abandoned, the enemy may still respond with artillery, mortars, or direct fire once friendly forces occupy the position, increasing vulnerability during reorganisation.

Following contact, elements should displace to a separate, concealed, and defensible location to reorganise, treat casualties, redistribute ammunition, and establish security. Selecting regroup points away from enemy positions reduces predictability and improves survivability

Identify the enemy’s location, strength, and disposition while minimising exposure.

• Use observation, movement, and probing fire to locate enemy elements.
• Confirm enemy positions through multiple indicators where possible.
• Avoid committing decisively before the enemy is identified.
• Report contact clearly to enable follow‑on actions.

Following contact, restore combat effectiveness before continuing operations.

Immediate Priorities

• Move off of the enemy position.
• Establish security.
• Confirm command structure.
• Assess casualties.
• Redistribute ammunition.
• Re-establish orientation.

Follow-On

• Reassign tasks as required.
• Report status.
• Prepare for follow-on action.

Manoeuvre elements to attack the enemy from a position of advantage.

• Move outside the enemy’s primary arcs of fire and observation.
• Use terrain, timing, and suppression to conceal movement.
• Maintain coordination with fixing elements to prevent enemy reorientation.
• Position flanking elements to engage decisive targets or vulnerabilities.

Destroy, dislodge, or force the enemy to disengage.

• Apply overwhelming fire and manoeuvre from decisive positions.
• Maintain momentum to prevent enemy recovery or withdrawal.
• Clear remaining resistance methodically.
• Re‑establish control and prepare for follow‑on actions.

Feints and demonstrations are conducted to deceive the enemy regarding friendly intent, location, or main effort.

A feint involves limited engagement to provoke a reaction, while a demonstration shows force without committing decisively. Both aim to draw enemy attention, fix forces, or cause misallocation of resources.

Key characteristics of feints and demonstrations:

• Actions are believable and consistent with real attacks.
• Force is applied selectively to avoid decisive engagement.
• Enemy reactions are observed and exploited elsewhere.
• Risk is carefully controlled to prevent escalation.
• Coordination ensures deception supports the main effort.

Feints and demonstrations are most effective when the enemy relies on reactive decision‑making and lacks complete situational awareness.

A raid is a deliberate, time-limited offensive action conducted to achieve a specific objective and then disengage.

Raids are not intended to seize or hold terrain. Instead, they focus on striking a defined target (such as personnel, equipment, infrastructure, or information) before withdrawing on a planned route.

Key characteristics of a raid:

• Clearly defined objective and end state.
• Emphasis on surprise, speed, and violence of action.
• Limited duration with a planned withdrawal.
• Forces are task-organised specifically for the objective.
• Disengagement is planned before the raid begins.

Raids rely on coordination between finding, fixing, and striking elements to isolate the objective and prevent enemy reinforcement. Once the objective is achieved, elements disengage rapidly to avoid becoming fixed or encircled.

A raid is most effective when the enemy is unprepared, reaction times are limited, and the attacking force retains freedom of manoeuvre throughout the action.

Exploitation focuses on capitalising on enemy disruption or collapse to expand the success of an attack.

When an enemy loses cohesion, elements rapidly advance to deny them the ability to reorganise, establish new defensive positions, or withdraw in good order. The objective is to turn a local success into a decisive advantage through momentum and pressure.

Key characteristics of exploitation:

• Speed and aggression are prioritised over consolidation.
• Enemy gaps, withdrawals, and confusion are exploited immediately.
• Objectives are flexible and may shift based on enemy reaction.
• Command focuses on maintaining tempo rather than perfect alignment.
• Exploitation ends before elements become overextended or isolated.

Exploitation is most effective when situational awareness is high and coordination allows combat power to be redirected quickly toward vulnerable enemy elements.

Limited pursuit is conducted to maintain pressure on a withdrawing enemy without committing to a full chase.

The intent is to prevent the enemy from disengaging cleanly, force continued movement, and inflict additional losses while avoiding overextension. Pursuit remains controlled and is broken deliberately when risk outweighs gain.

Key characteristics of limited pursuit:

• Pressure is applied without abandoning formation integrity.
• Fire and manoeuvre are used to keep the enemy moving.
• Contact is maintained selectively, not continuously.
• Boundaries and disengagement criteria are clearly understood.
• Elements avoid being drawn into prepared positions or ambushes.

Limited pursuit is most effective when the enemy is disorganised but still capable of resistance, and when friendly forces retain freedom to disengage at will.

A fixing attack is conducted to prevent the enemy from manoeuvring, reinforcing, or disengaging.

Rather than seeking immediate destruction, the fixing element applies sustained pressure to hold the enemy in place while other elements manoeuvre to achieve decisive effects elsewhere.

Key characteristics of a fixing attack:

• Fire is used to deny enemy movement and initiative.
• Positions are maintained long enough to shape the battlefield.
• The fixing element avoids unnecessary advance or exposure.
• Success is measured by enemy immobility, not terrain gained.
• Coordination with manoeuvring elements is critical.

Fixing attacks are commonly used as part of larger manoeuvre schemes such as anvil and hammer, encirclement, or breakthrough operations.

A pincer attack applies pressure on the enemy from two different directions at the same time.

By attacking from multiple axes, the enemy is forced to divide attention, fire, and manoeuvre, reducing their ability to respond effectively. The intent is to collapse resistance by overwhelming the enemy’s ability to orient toward a single threat.

Key characteristics of a pincer attack:

• Two manoeuvre elements attack from separate directions.
• Pressure is applied simultaneously rather than sequentially.
• Enemy freedom of movement is restricted.
• Enemy fire and command are divided across multiple threats.

Pincer attacks are most effective when coordination and timing prevent either element from becoming decisively engaged alone.

An anvil and hammer attack fixes the enemy in place while a manoeuvre element strikes from a different direction.

One element applies sustained pressure to prevent the enemy from repositioning, while the second element manoeuvres to attack exposed flanks or rear areas. The enemy’s focus on the fixing force creates an opportunity for decisive manoeuvre.

Key characteristics of an anvil and hammer attack:

• One element fixes the enemy through pressure.
• One element manoeuvres to strike from an offset direction.
• Success depends on maintaining pressure until manoeuvre is complete.
• Manoeuvre is protected by the fixing element.

Anvil and hammer attacks are most effective when the fixing force can hold the enemy’s attention long enough for manoeuvre to succeed.

A frontal assault advances directly against the enemy from a single direction.

All elements apply pressure along the same axis to fix the enemy while progressively closing distance. Fire and movement are used to maintain momentum and prevent the enemy from disengaging or reorganising.

Key characteristics of a frontal assault:

• Attack is conducted from a single direction.
• All elements contribute to fixing the enemy.
• Progress is achieved through coordinated fire and movement.
• Predictability is offset by sustained pressure.

Frontal assaults rely heavily on coordination and fire superiority, as the enemy remains oriented toward the attacking force.

Encirclement attacks the enemy from multiple directions to deny movement and withdrawal.

Rather than focusing on a single axis, encirclement applies pressure across several approaches simultaneously. The intent is to isolate the enemy, degrade cohesion, and prevent reinforcement or escape.

Key characteristics of encirclement:

• Multiple manoeuvre elements attack from different directions.
• Enemy withdrawal routes are denied or controlled.
• Pressure is applied continuously across all axes.
• Enemy cohesion and command are rapidly degraded.

Encirclement is most effective against isolated or static enemies unable to break contact or reposition.

A breakthrough concentrates combat power to rupture an enemy line at a selected point.

Once the line is penetrated, forces exploit the gap to attack exposed flanks and rear areas, disrupting cohesion and command. The objective is to split the enemy formation and prevent reconstitution of the defence.

Key characteristics of a breakthrough:

• Combat power is concentrated at a decisive point.
• Initial penetration is followed by rapid exploitation.
• Enemy formations are split or isolated.
• Momentum is maintained to prevent line restoration.

Breakthrough operations are most effective when follow‑on forces can exploit success faster than the enemy can react.

Apply sufficient fire to reduce the enemy’s ability to return effective fire.

• Direct fire toward known or suspected enemy positions to suppress them.
• Increase volume, accuracy, or tempo of fire until enemy fire becomes ineffective or sporadic.
• Use suppressive fire as the primary method; at closer ranges or against small elements, deliberate fire may be sufficient.
• Maintain fire until friendly manoeuvre or disengagement is achieved.

Fire superiority enables freedom of movement and reduces friendly casualties.

Engage the enemy while repositioning to prevent being fixed in place.

• Apply effective fire to suppress or fix the enemy.
• Reposition elements after limited engagement time from the same position.
• Use movement to deny the enemy predictable targeting and control.
• Exploit new positions to gain improved firing angles and observation.
• Maintain coordination so fire and movement remain mutually supporting.

Prolonged firing from a single position increases vulnerability. Continuous manoeuvre preserves initiative and survivability.

Effectively allocate firepower to cover likely enemy approaches while preventing overlap and friendly fire.

• Identify likely enemy avenues of approach within the assigned area.
• Divide the sector into clearly defined fire arcs covering only viable threat directions.
• Assign each individual, buddy team, or weapon system a specific arc using bearings, clock directions, or terrain references.
• Ensure arcs do not overlap unnecessarily, especially across friendly positions or movement routes.
• Confirm all personnel understand their assigned arc and engagement limits.
• Adjust arcs as the situation, terrain, or friendly positioning changes.

Reposition the element away from the enemy in a controlled and deliberate manner to end the engagement.

• Issue a clear command to disengage; explicitly order personnel to cease fire when required.
• Establish suppression or covering elements as needed to enable movement.
• Reposition by bounds or controlled movement to increase distance from the enemy.
• Maintain element cohesion and accountability throughout the movement.
• Once clear, re-establish security and prepare for follow-on actions.

Breaking contact creates a short period of vulnerability. Speed, discipline, and clear leadership are critical, as personnel may instinctively continue engaging unless directed otherwise.

An elastic defense allows elements to give ground deliberately while maintaining overall cohesion of the defensive line. Positions are not fixed; controlled withdrawal is used to preserve combat power and prevent encirclement.

The primary objective is to maintain a continuous defensive frontage while trading space for time and positional advantage. As the enemy advances, their formations extend and become increasingly exposed, creating opportunities to engage flanks and overextended elements.

Elastic defence emphasizes:

• Controlled displacement rather than collapse
• Maintaining mutual support across depth
• Exploiting enemy overextension instead of contesting every position

This approach is best suited when terrain allows depth, command and control can be maintained, and flexibility is required to counter superior enemy pressure.

A spoiling attack is a limited offensive action conducted to disrupt an enemy attack before it can be launched.

Rather than holding ground, the intent is to force the enemy to deploy early, break coordination, or abandon prepared plans. Spoiling attacks aim to reduce the effectiveness of an enemy assault by striking at a time and place of advantage.

Key characteristics of a spoiling attack:

• Conducted with defensive intent.
• Limited in scope and duration.
• Targets enemy preparations, staging areas, or lead elements.
• Seeks disruption rather than decisive engagement.
• Followed by a planned withdrawal or transition back to defense.

Spoiling attacks are most effective when executed before the enemy fully commits, allowing friendly forces to regain time, initiative, or positional advantage without becoming decisively engaged.

Mobile defense prioritises the preservation of manoeuvre over holding fixed terrain.

Instead of establishing a continuous defensive line, elements retain mobility and engage the enemy through movement, repositioning, and selective engagement. The aim is to disrupt the enemy’s advance, draw them into unfavourable positions, and apply combat power at chosen points.

Key characteristics of a mobile defence:

• Limited reliance on fixed positions.
• Emphasis on freedom of movement and flexibility.
• Engagements are initiated and broken deliberately.
• Use of maneuver to avoid being fixed or enveloped.
• Counter‑attacks are used to exploit exposed enemy elements rather than to retake ground.

Mobile defence is most effective when space is available, situational awareness is maintained, and coordination allows rapid concentration of force at decisive moments.

The purpose of delaying actions is to trade space for time without becoming decisively engaged.

Elements conducting a delay do not seek to hold ground. Instead, they engage the enemy briefly to slow movement, force deployment, and disrupt momentum before repositioning.

Key characteristics of a delaying action:

• Ground is conceded deliberately.
• Engagements are short and controlled.
• The enemy is forced to pause, reorganise, or redeploy.
• Element cohesion and freedom of movement are preserved.

A delay often transitions into a fighting retreat, defence in depth, or a counter‑attack once conditions become favourable.

A counter-attack is an offensive action conducted by a defending force to regain lost ground, restore the defensive line, or exploit an enemy overextension. It is executed after the enemy has been fixed, exposed, or disorganised.

Counter-attacks are deliberately timed and focused. They target enemy flanks, gaps, or overextended elements rather than the enemy’s main strength. Success relies on coordination, surprise, and rapid execution rather than prolonged engagement.

Key principles of a counter-attack include:

• Launching only when the enemy is vulnerable or committed
• Maintaining control and coordination with adjacent defensive elements
• Re-establishing the original defensive posture or transitioning to a new one immediately after completion

A counter-attack is not a pursuit. Once the objective is achieved, forces consolidate, re-orient security, and prepare to resume the defence or repel follow-on attacks.

A static defense relies on holding fixed positions with no planned maneuver or displacement. Defensive success depends on all elements maintaining their assigned ground.

Static defenses offer strong initial control over assigned sectors but lack flexibility. If one element is forced to withdraw or loses its position, adjacent sectors may become exposed, often resulting in the collapse of the entire defence.

Because repositioning is not anticipated, static defences require:

• Reliable mutual support between positions
• Clear sector responsibility and fire control
• Early threat detection to prevent breakthrough

Static defence is best suited for terrain that naturally restricts enemy movement or when withdrawal and manoeuvre are not feasible.

Defense in depth employs multiple prepared defensive lines arranged in depth rather than relying on a single position. Each line is designed to absorb, delay, and disrupt the enemy while preserving friendly combat power.

Forces transition between static defence and fighting retreat as pressure increases. Forward elements fix and attrit the enemy, then withdraw in a controlled manner to subsequent positions, maintaining cohesion and mutual support throughout the depth of the defence.

Defence in depth emphasizes:

• Layered positions to prevent a single point of failure
• Planned displacement between lines rather than ad hoc withdrawal
• Continuous engagement to degrade enemy momentum over time

This approach is effective when terrain allows depth, preparation time is available, and the commander intends to delay, exhaust, or canalize the enemy before decisive engagement.

A fighting retreat is a controlled withdrawal conducted under continuous enemy pressure. The force maintains contact with the enemy while deliberately moving rearward to preserve combat power and prevent decisive engagement.

All elements apply consistent fire to slow, fix, and disrupt the enemy while displacing in a coordinated manner. Movement is synchronized across the line to prevent gaps, isolation, or collapse of individual elements.

Key characteristics of a fighting retreat include:

• Continuous fire to maintain pressure and deny freedom of movement
• Coordinated displacement to keep the defensive line intact
• Emphasis on discipline and timing to avoid disorder or pursuit exploitation

A fighting retreat is used to delay an advancing enemy, trade space for time, or draw the enemy into more favourable terrain without breaking cohesion.

• Suppress known or suspected enemy positions with heavy weapons.
• Provide mobile cover as infantry crosses open spaces.
• Illuminate or engage fortified targets that infantry cannot suppress effectively.

When operating alongside armoured vehicles in urban terrain:

• Infantry should never advance directly in front of the gun and should maintain communication with the vehicle commander when moving close.
• Using FM/BG-1329 - Vehicle with flanking infantry:
  • Infantry advances along the sides of the vehicle's axis, engaging or clearing threats.
  • When a vehicle fires or shifts position, infantry falls back into formation to maintain cover and avoid overpressure.
• Vehicles may move or reposition without warning, creating a crushing hazard.
• Tank cannons generate severe overpressure when firing. Infantry standing to the front are at risk of fatal injury. Overpressure extends 50–100 m in a ~45° cone shape from the gun's muzzle.

• Visibility for vehicle crews is restricted, especially toward the sides and rear.
• Movement corridors (streets, alleys) limit manoeuvring options and make vehicles predictable targets.
• Danger areas (intersections, courtyards, open stretches) require deliberate overwatch and coordination before crossing.

Urban environments present two primary threats to armoured vehicles:

1. Anti-Vehicle Ambushes (AV threats) - Hidden enemy teams with launchers can appear suddenly from windows, alleys, or rooftops.
   • Infantry should clear windows, doors, and corners ahead of the vehicle to reduce this risk.
2. Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) - These are often placed in choke points or along predictable vehicle routes.

Infantry should scout slightly ahead, observing for disturbed ground, hidden wires, or suspicious objects that may indicate a threat. 

Infantry can provide essential protection to vehicles by:

• Clearing ground-level and elevated threats before the vehicle enters an area.
• Maintaining lateral security along both sides of the vehicle's path.
• Marking cleared areas or safe routes to guide vehicle movement.
• Communicating observed threats (IEDs, AT teams, blocked routes) immediately on the relevant net.

• Before dismounting, the call "Dismount" will be given by the crew
• After dismounting the vehicle move away from the vehicle without crossing in front or behind the vehicle, to prevent being run over, or stopping the vehicle from moving as it needs to.

• Stay off crew intercom, and join cargo if crew was selected by default
• Do not try to interact directly with the crew, regardless of the situation
• Casual conversation is allowed, unless instructed otherwise by the crew/leadership
• Cease casual conversation automatically when in contact or in an emergency

Element leaders ensure their team boards the assigned vehicle, supervise loading, and board last. If acting as navigator, they must communicate to their team that the front passenger seat should be left for them to occupy.

All personnel must follow directions during embarkation. Leaders must take charge; subordinates must listen and comply.

When mounting in a vehicle, announce to the fireteam leader when your are mounted over the radio.

‘{name} up’

This allows fireteam leaders to then notify the squad leader and so on and ensure that everyone who needs to be on board, is on board before the vehicle departs.

5 m physical check: Immediately after dismounting, physically inspect the immediate 5-metre ring around the vehicle.

20 m visual check:  After the 5m physical check., conduct a visual scan out to 20 metres in all directions:

Look for IED indicators, tripwires, ground anomalies, recent digging, foreign objects, fuel/power cables, suspicious containers, or dangerous terrain.

Vehicles must avoid endangering friendly infantry. Do not run them over, and avoid firing main guns near dismounts unless absolutely necessary due to the risk of overpressure injuries. In close terrain infantry should move ahead of the vehicle as this gives dismounts a chance to spot threats early. 

Vehicle commanders may, if required, dismount to coordinate directly with infantry.

• Match the infantry pace.
• Maintain awareness of spacing, arcs, and potential threats

• The commander is responsible for the vehicle and all its crew plus any dismounts mounted,
• If there is no commander present, the gunner takes on the role of commander and all responsibilities.
• The senior member of the infantry element assumes the role of Infantry Leader and is responsible for communicating with the commander or acting commander per FM/BG-1339 - Mounted infantry communication.

When a vehicle crew is assigned or attached to an infantry element, the vehicle crew should join the infantry element's assigned radio frequency to ensure shared situational awareness for movement and contact reporting.

• Both driver and vehicle commander should join the net.
• The net should be continually monitored for movement orders from the element commander for the vehicle and any contact reports.

The Infantry Leader is responsible for communicating with the Vehicle Commander to coordinate the mounting and dismounting of personnel, as well as the loading or unloading of casualties and CPERS.

• The Infantry Leader may use the crew intercom or designate an intercom channel when mounted to maintain coordination with the Vehicle Commander.
• When the vehicle is attached to another element, the vehicle crew always acts on orders from their Commander, even if conflicting instructions are given by the Infantry Leader.

1. Driver: Stop the vehicle per the commanders orders
2. Driver: Announce “VEHICLE STOPPED”
3. Commander: Scan the immediate area for hazards and personnel
4. Commander: If clear, issue “CLEAR TO MOUNT”
5. Allow personnel and cargo to mount and secure loads.
6. Infantry leader: Confirm all personnel and cargo loaded, enter the vehicle and announce “ALL UP”
7. Commander: Confirm the immediate area clear of obstacles and personnel
8. Commander: Announce "VEHICLE CLEAR” and give new instructions to the crew

1. Driver: Approach a suitable unloading position per the commanders orders.
2. Driver: Stop the vehicle and verify full halt.
3. Driver: Announce “VEHICLE STOPPED”
4. Commander: Scan the immediate area for hazards.
5. Commander: If clear, announce "INFANTRY DISMOUNT [left/right]” to the Infantry Leader, using the direction based on available cover.*
6. Allow personnel and cargo to dismount.
7. Infantry Leader: confirm all personnel and cargo unloaded, exit last and communicate "LAST OUT” to the commander.
8. Commander: Confirm the immediate area is clear of obstacles and remaining personnel.
9. Commander: Announce "VEHICLE CLEAR” and give new instructions to the crew

* Infantry may dismount facing away from the rear of the vehicle; the left/right command may be reversed accordingly.

• Jockey at least once every 3 to 4 bursts/shots, or more frequently if the situation requires. Block Not Found
• Suppress enemy positions, destroy fortifications, and reduce enemy threat.

• Select a weak point in the wall, 
• Drive into the wall at between 5-10kph,
• If the infantry commander has requested smoke, deploy smoke,
• Reverse out to safety or push forward to cover if the tactical situation dictates.

• Select appropriate ammunition (HE, HEAT, HESH or another HE variant),
• Confirm no friendly forces are near the breach point,
• Fire at the breach point until the wall collapses,
• Shift fire to allow infantry to advance.

Vehicles may use their enhanced mobility to make use of the terrain to move in cover from an enemy position and to attack from an unexpected angle. If carrying dismounts, this effect can be multiplied.

A hull down position uses terrain to expose only a vehicle’s turret or primary weapon system while concealing the hull, minimizing the profile presented to the enemy and protecting critical components. This posture significantly increases survivability by reducing the likelihood of catastrophic hits while allowing the vehicle to engage effectively.

Hull-down positions are most effective when established on reverse slopes, berms, or terrain crests that permit observation and fire without fully exposing the vehicle. Tanks and other vehicles with turreted or remotely operated weapon systems benefit most from this posture. Crews should maintain the ability to reposition quickly, as static hull-down positions can be compromised once identified.

After firing, the vehicle should jockey as per Block Not Found

Above: An MBT utilising a hull down position

Use the terrain while taking into account available cover, sight lines and mobility requirements to conceal all or part of a vehicle.

A Turret down position is similar to a FM/BG-940 - Hull down position however it only exposes the Commander/Gunner's optics or binoculars if they are turned out. This position is good for observing a target without exposing the vehicle or crew.

Turning out allows the commander or driver to stand in the hatch for improved visibility but exposes them to enemy fire. It should only be done when the risk is low and situational awareness is worth the exposure.

Some vehicles require the commander to turn out to use a mounted machine gun, do so only when the tactical benefit outweighs the risk.

Jockeying involves repositioning a vehicle laterally behind cover to avoid enemy return fire. The vehicle backs out of view, shifts left or right, and then re-enters a firing position from a new angle to re-engage.

This manoeuvre makes targeting more difficult for the enemy by presenting a new position each time. It should be used after being spotted or fired on to stay survivable while maintaining offensive pressure 

1. Move out of view: move the vehicle out of the enemy’s line of sight making use of the terrain.
2. Shift laterally: While still concealed, move the vehicle laterally (left or right) behind cover to change the firing angle.
3. Establish a new firing position: Move into a new firing position so the vehicle is able to fire at the target from a different angle.

Each convoy operates on a dedicated radio frequency to coordinate all vehicles. This frequency is separate from infantry or other command nets and is either pre-planned during the mission brief or selected at convoy formation. The convoy net is non-transactional: communications are broadcast to all vehicles without requiring individual acknowledgment. 

The convoy net is used to coordinate movement and maintain situational awareness among vehicle crews, support elements, and mounted infantry.

• Drivers: Listen continuously and transmit convoy calls as required.
• Convoy Commander: Actively monitors the net, issuing convoy parameters or route updates.
• Other personnel (vehicle commanders, gunners, infantry leaders, passengers): May listen to maintain awareness but must not transmit directly. Information should be relayed to the driver for transmission if needed.

• Scan arcs as per FM/BG-922 - Convoy security
• Communicate any areas of concern to the vehicle or element commander.

If the lead vehicle must brake suddenly, the driver must announce “BRAKING, BRAKING, BRAKING” over comms to prevent collisions.

Gunners must maintain 360° security at all times. The lead vehicle is responsible for observing to the front, the rear vehicle covers the rear, and interior vehicles alternate left and right to ensure continuous coverage in all directions. Gunners should cover their assigned sectors and resist the urge to fixate on one threat direction.

Vehicles must maintain a spacing of 20 to 100 meters, adjusted for terrain and visibility. This interval must be preserved while moving, turning, or stopping to reduce vulnerability to explosives and concentrated enemy fire.

Above: Visual Representation of Spacing and Gunner Arcs

Maintain the correct position in a convoy as set by the element leader

Transmit the appropriate calls on the convoy net during movement:

First and Last Vehicle:

• “[first/last] MOVING”: vehicle begins movement.
• “[first/last] TURNING [direction]”: vehicle changing direction.
• “[first/last] HOLDING”: vehicle halting temporarily.

Any Vehicle in Convoy:

• “[callsign] DANGER [description]”: hazard present, movement may continue.
• “[callsign] stopping [description]”: hazard requiring the vehicle to stop.
• “[callsign] MAX SPEED [speed in kph]”: vehicle unable to maintain convoy speed; request reduction.

For halts under 30 seconds, mounted troops should stay inside but remain alert and scan for threats. For longer halts, troops dismount and provide local security under team or squad leader direction. Clear commands must be given to dismount and remount, with accountability ensured.

For halts longer than 30 seconds or reaction-to-contact halts, convoys should form the herringbone formation to maximize security and spacing unless different instructions are given by the element commander.

The Herringbone formation involves vehicles pulling off alternately to the left and right sides of the road at about a 45° angle. This formation is easy to execute and provides good security and spacing, useful across open and road terrain.

Above: Visual Representation of Herringbone.

To perform the herringbone halt:

• Receive the halt order.
• Decelerate smoothly while maintaining convoy spacing.
• Alternate pulling off to the left or right side of the route at a ~45° angle.
• Angle the vehicle outward from the road axis,  maintaining sufficient spacing from adjacent vehicles.
• Halt with wheels/tracks oriented to avoid obstacles or any potential hazards and to allow rapid re-entry to the route.

To resume movement:

• Receive the order to move and wait for the vehicle in front of you to move if you are not the lead vehicle
• Re-enter the route in convoy order.
• Accelerate smoothly and re-establish convoy speed and spacing.

• A convoy maintains cohesion of multiple vehicles during long-distance movement outside of combat.
• Armed vehicles are positioned at key points to provide protection for unarmed or lightly armed vehicles.
• Convoys operate on a dedicated Convoy Net and are directed by a Convoy Commander.
• To maintain effective control, a convoy should include no more than 8 vehicles.
• Larger movements must be split into two separate convoys, each with its own net and commander.

Each convoy has a designated Convoy Commander responsible for coordinating movement, planning routes, and adjusting them as needed. Prior to formation, the Convoy Commander ensures all drivers know the convoy net frequency.

When the planned route changes, the Convoy Commander must notify all drivers. If map markers are synchronized, updating the markers is sufficient. If markers are not synchronized, small deviations may be communicated with turn-by-turn instructions. For significant deviations, the convoy may be stopped to provide a full briefing on the updated route.

Avoid urban routes when possible due to high ambush risk. Forested or rocky terrain may also be dangerous but is sometimes unavoidable—move with heightened caution. Commanders should always plan primary and alternate routes.